SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

Washington, DC 20549

FORM 20-F

OR

For the fiscal year ended December 31, 2018

OR

Commission file number 1-14550

中国东方航空股份有限公司

(Exact Name of Registrant as Specified in Its Charter)

5/F, Block A2, Northern District, CEA Building

36 Hongxiang 3rd Road, Minhang District, Shanghai

People’s Republic of China

Tel: (8621) 6268-6268

Fax: (8621) 6268-6116

(Address and Contact Details of the Board Secretariat’s Office)

Securities registered or to be registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act:

Securities registered or to be registered pursuant to Section 12(g) of the Act:

None

(Title of Class)

Securities for which there is a reporting obligation pursuant to Section 15(d) of the Act:

None

(Title of Class)

Indicate the number of outstanding shares of each of the issuer’s classes of capital or common stock as of the close of the period covered by the annual report.

As of December 31, 2018, 9,808,485,682 Ordinary Domestic Shares, par value RMB1.00 per share, were issued and outstanding, and 4,659,100,000 Ordinary H Shares par value RMB1.00 per share, were issued and outstanding. H Shares are Ordinary Shares of the Company listed on The Stock Exchange of Hong Kong Limited. Each American Depositary Share represents 50 Ordinary H Shares.

Indicate by check mark if the registrant is a well-known seasoned issuer, as defined in Rule 405 of the Securities Act.    Yes  ☐    No  ☒

If this report is an annual or transition report, indicate by check mark if the registrant is not required to file reports pursuant to Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 ..    Yes  ☐    No  ☒

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant: (1) has filed all reports required to be filed by Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to file such reports), and (2) has been subject to such filing requirements for the past 90 days.    Yes  ☒    No  ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has submitted electronically every Interactive Data File required to be submitted pursuant to Rule 405 of Regulation S-T during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to submit such files).    Yes  ☒    No  ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer or an emerging growth company. See definition of “large accelerated filer”, “accelerated filer” and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.

If an emerging growth company that prepares its financial statements in accordance with U.S. GAAP, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards provided pursuant to Section 13(a) of the Exchange Act.  ☐

The term “new or revised financial accounting standard” refers to any update issued by the Financial Accounting Standards Board to its Accounting Standards Codification after April 5, 2012.

Indicate by check mark which basis of accounting the registrant has used to prepare the financial statements included in this filing:

If “Other” has been checked in response to the previous question, indicate by check mark which financial statement item the registrant has elected to follow.

Item 17  ☐    Item 18  ☐

If this is an annual report, indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a shell company (as defined in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act).     Yes  ☐    No  ☒

SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION

In this Annual Report, unless otherwise specified, the term “dollars”, “U.S. dollars” or “US$” refers to United States dollars, the lawful currency of the United States of America, or the United States or the U.S.; the term “Renminbi” or “RMB” refers to Renminbi, the lawful currency of The People’s Republic of China, or China or the PRC; the term “Hong Kong dollars” or “HK$” refers to Hong Kong dollars, the lawful currency of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China, or Hong Kong; the term “SGD” refers to Singapore dollars, the lawful currency of the Republic of Singapore; the term “JPY” refers to Japan Yen, the lawful currency of Japan; the term “EUR” refers to EURO, the lawful currency of EMU member countries and the term “KRW” refers to Korea Won, the lawful currency of the Republic of Korea. Any discrepancies in the tables included herein between the amounts listed and the totals are due to rounding.

In this Annual Report, the term “we”, “us”, “our”, “our/the Company”, or “our Group” refers to China Eastern Airlines Corporation Limited, a joint stock limited company incorporated under the laws of the PRC on April 14, 1995, and our subsidiaries, or, in respect of references to any time prior to the incorporation of China Eastern Airlines Corporation Limited, the core airline business carried on by its predecessor, China Eastern Airlines, which was assumed by China Eastern Airlines Corporation Limited pursuant to the restructuring described in this Annual Report. The term “CEA Holding” refers to our parent, China Eastern Air Holding Company, which was established on October 11, 2002 as a result of the merger of our former controlling shareholder, Eastern Air Group Company, or EA Group, with China Northwest Airlines Company and Yunnan Airlines Company.

For the purpose of this Annual Report, references to The People’s Republic of China, China and the PRC do not include Hong Kong, Taiwan, or the Macau Special Administrative Region of China, or Macau.

CAUTIONARY STATEMENT WITH RESPECT TO FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS

Certain information contained in this Annual Report may be deemed to constitute forward-looking statements. These forward-looking statements include, without limitation, statements relating to:

The words or phrases “aim”, “anticipate”, “believe”, “continue”, “could”, “estimate”, “expect”, “going forward”, “intend”, “may”, “ought to”, “plan”, “potential”, “predict”, “project”, “seek”, “should”, “will”, “would”, and similar expressions or the negatives thereof, as they relate to our Company or its management, are intended to identify “forward-looking statements” within the meaning of Section 27A of the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, and Section 21E of the Securities and Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, or the Exchange Act. These forward-looking statements are based on current plans and estimates, and speak only as of the date they are made. We undertake no obligation to update or revise any forward-looking statement in light of new information, future events or otherwise. Forward-looking statements are, by their nature, subject to inherent risks and uncertainties, some of which are beyond our control, and are based on assumptions and analyzes made by us in light of our experience and our perception of historical trends, current conditions and expected future developments, as well as other factors we believe are appropriate in particular circumstances. We caution you that a number of important factors could cause actual outcomes to differ, or to differ materially, from those expressed in any forward-looking statement, including, without limitation:

1

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

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PART I

Item 1. Identity of Directors, Senior Management and Advisers

Not applicable.

Item 2. Offer Statistics and Expected Timetable

Not applicable.

Item 3. Key Information

Pursuant to U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (“SEC” or “Securities and Exchange Commission”) Release 33-8879 “ Acceptance from Foreign Private Issuers of Financial Statements Prepared in Accordance with International Financial Reporting Standards without Reconciliation to U.S. GAAP “ eliminating the requirement for foreign private issuers to reconcile their financial statements to U.S. GAAP, we prepare our financial statements based on International Financial Reporting Standards, or IFRSs, as issued by the International Accounting Standards Board, or the IASB, and no longer provide a reconciliation between IFRSs and U.S. GAAP.

Our consolidated financial statements as of December 31, 2017 and 2018 and for the years ended December 31, 2016, 2017 and 2018 included in this Annual Report on Form 20-F have been prepared in accordance with IFRSs.

We make an explicit and unreserved statement of compliance with IFRSs with respect to our consolidated financial statements as of December 31, 2017 and 2018 and for the years ended December 31, 2016, 2017 and 2018 included in this Annual Report. Ernst & Young Hua Ming LLP, our current independent registered public accounting firm in the PRC, has issued an unqualified auditor’s report on our consolidated statement of financial position as of December 31, 2018 and the related consolidated statements of profit or loss and other comprehensive income, changes in equity and cash flows for the year ended December 31, 2018. The selected financial data from the consolidated profit or loss and other comprehensive income for the years ended December 31, 2017 and the selected financial data from the consolidated financial position as of December 31, 2017 have been derived from our audited consolidated financial statements, which have been prepared in accordance with IFRSs, and audited by Ernst & Young Hua Ming LLP. The selected financial data from the consolidated profit or loss and other comprehensive income for the years ended December 31, 2014, 2015 and 2016 and the selected financial data from the consolidated financial position as of December 31, 2014, 2015 and 2016 have been derived from our audited consolidated financial statements, which have been prepared in accordance with IFRSs, and audited by Ernst & Young, an independent registered public accounting firm in Hong Kong.

3

The following tables present selected consolidated profit or loss and comprehensive income data for the years ended December 31, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017 and 2018 and selected consolidated statements of financial position data as of December 31, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017 and 2018 that were prepared under IFRSs. The selected financial information as of December 31, 2017 and 2018 and for the years ended December 31, 2016, 2017 and 2018 has been derived from, and should be read in conjunction with, the audited consolidated financial statements and their notes included elsewhere in this Annual Report.

Notes:

4

Selected Operating Data

The following table sets forth certain of our operating data for the five years ended December 31, 2018, which is not audited. All references in this Annual Report to our cargo operations, statistics or revenues include figures for cargo and mail.

Notes:

5

Not applicable.

Not applicable.

Risks Relating to our Business

We may suffer losses in the event of an accident or incident involving our aircraft or the aircraft of any other airline.

As an airline company operating a large fleet, an accident or incident involving one of our aircraft could result in delays and require repair or replacement of a damaged aircraft, which could result in consequential temporary or permanent losses from disruption of service and/or significant liability to injured passengers and others. Unforeseeable or unpredictable events such as inclement weather, mechanical failures, human error, aircraft defects and other force majeure events may affect flight safety, which could result in accidents and/or incidents of passenger injuries or deaths that could lead to significant injury and loss claims. Although we believe that we currently maintain liability insurance in amounts and of the types generally consistent with industry practice, the amount of such coverage may not be adequate to cover the costs related to an accident or incident in full, which could damage our results of operations and financial condition. In addition, any aircraft accident or incident, even if fully insured, could cause a public perception that we are not as safe or reliable as other airlines, which could harm our competitive position and result in a decrease in our operating revenues. Moreover, a major accident or incident involving an aircraft of our competitors may cause the demand for air travel in general to decrease. In particular, certain of our competitors in the Asia Pacific region experienced major aircraft accidents and incidents in 2014, some of which involved destinations and routes that we cover. Also, there were accidents and incidents involving other airline companies and aircraft manufacturers in recent years. These accidents and incidents were highly publicized in the media and may have affected public perception of certain air travel routes, airline companies and aircraft manufacturers. The occurrence of any of the foregoing could adversely affect our results of operations and financial condition.

Our indebtedness and other financial obligations may have a material adverse effect on our liquidity and operations.

We have a substantial amount of debt, lease and other financial obligations, and will continue to do so in the future. As of December 31, 2018, our total liabilities were approximately RMB177,416 million and our current liabilities exceeded our current assets by approximately RMB57,132 million. Our total interest-bearing liabilities (including long-term and short-term borrowings, finance leases payable and bonds payable) as of December 31, 2017 and 2018 were approximately RMB130,669 million and RMB132,579 million, respectively, of which short-term liabilities accounted for approximately 37.0 % and 29.1%, respectively. Our substantial indebtedness and other financial obligations could materially and adversely affect our business and operations, including being required to dedicate additional cash flow from operations to the payment of principal and interest on our indebtedness, thereby reducing the funds available for operations, maintenance and service improvements and future business opportunities, increasing our vulnerability to economic recessions, reducing our flexibility in responding to changing business and economic conditions, placing us at a disadvantage compared to competitors with lower debt, limiting our ability to arrange for additional financing for working capital, capital expenditures and other general corporate purposes, at all or on terms that are acceptable to us.

Moreover, we are largely dependent upon cash flows generated from our operations and external financing to meet our debt repayment obligations and working capital requirements, which may reduce the funds available for other business purposes. If our operating cash flow is materially and adversely affected by factors such as increased competition, a significant decrease in demand for our services, or a significant increase in jet fuel prices, our liquidity would be materially and adversely affected. We also try to secure sufficient financing through financing arrangements with domestic and foreign banks in China as well as from debt and equity capital markets. However, our ability to obtain financing may be affected by our financial position and leverage, our credit rating and investor perception of the aviation industry, as well as prevailing economic conditions and the cost of financing in general. If we are unable to obtain adequate financing for our capital requirements, our liquidity and operations would be materially and adversely affected.

In addition, the airline industry overall is characterized by a high degree of operating leverage. Due to high fixed costs, including payments made in connection with aircraft leases, and landing and infrastructure fees which are set by government authorities and not within our control, the expenses relating to flight operations do not vary proportionately with the number of passengers carried, while revenues generated from a particular flight are directly related to the number of passengers carried and the fare structure of the flight. Accordingly, a decrease in revenues may result in a disproportionately higher decrease in profits.

6

We may not be able to secure future financing at terms acceptable to us or at all.

We require significant amounts of external financing to meet our capital commitments for acquiring and upgrading aircraft and flight equipment and for other general corporate needs. As of December 31, 2018, we had total unutilized credit facilities of approximately RMB56.2 billion from various banks. We expect to roll over these bank facilities in the near future. In addition, we generally acquire aircraft through either long-term capital leases or operating leases. In the past, we have obtained guarantees from Chinese banks in respect of payments under our foreign loan and capital lease obligations. However, we cannot assure you that we will be able to roll over our bank facilities or continue to obtain bank guarantees in the future. Unavailability of credit facilities or guarantees from Chinese banks or the increased cost of such guarantees may materially and adversely affect our ability to borrow additional funds or enter into international aircraft lease financing or other additional financing on acceptable terms In addition, if we are not able to arrange financing for our aircraft on order, we may seek to defer aircraft deliveries or use cash from operations or other sources to acquire the aircraft .

Our ability to obtain financing may also be impaired by our financial position, leverage and credit rating. In addition, factors beyond our control, such as recent global market and economic conditions, volatile oil prices, and the tightening of credit markets may result in limited availability of financing and increased volatility in credit and equity markets, which may materially adversely affect our ability to secure financing at reasonable costs or at all. If we are unable to obtain financing for a significant portion of our capital requirements, our ability to expand our operations, purchase new aircraft, pursue business opportunities we believe to be desirable, withstand any future downturn in our business, or respond to increased competition or changing economic conditions may be impaired. We have and in the future will likely continue to have substantial debts. As a result, the interest costs associated with these debts might impair our future profitability.

We are subject to the risk of fuel price fluctuations.

Jet fuel is one of the major expenses of airlines. Significant fluctuations of international oil prices will significantly impact jet fuel prices and our revenue from fuel surcharge and accordingly our results of operations. In 2018, our total aircraft fuel cost was approximately RMB33,680 million, representing an increase of approximately 34.0 % from approximately RMB25,131 million in 2017, which was mainly due to an increase in average price of oil as the increased oil production volume of Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (“OPEC”) and other oil suppliers was lower than that the market expected and the political upheaval in the Middle East and Venezuela increased the uncertainty of oil production, and to a lesser extent, an increase in our volume of refueling from 2017 to 2018. In 2018, our total aircraft fuel cost accounted for approximately 29.9% of our total operating expenses, as compared to approximately 25.0% in 2017.

The fluctuations of international crude oil prices and adjustments on domestic jet fuel prices by the National Development and Reform Commission (the “NDRC”) have a significant impact on our profitability. Our results of operation and financial condition are affected by any significant fluctuations that may occur, which are generally due to factors beyond our control. As such, we generally alleviate the pressure from the rise in operating costs arising from the increase in aviation fuel by imposing fuel surcharges, which, however, are subject to government regulations. In order to control fuel costs, we have also entered into fuel hedging transactions using financial derivative products linked to the price of underlying assets such as United States WTI crude oil and Singapore jet fuel during previous years.

Since 2009, the PRC government required prior governmental approval for entering into fuel hedging contracts. We may, from time to time, seek approval from the PRC government to enter into overseas fuel hedging contracts. However, these hedging strategies may not always be effective and high fluctuations in aviation fuel prices exceeding the locked-in price ranges may result in losses. Significant decline in fuel prices may substantially increase the costs associated with such fuel hedging arrangements. In addition, where we may, from time to time, seek to manage the risk of fuel price increases by using derivative contracts, we cannot assure you that, at any given point in time, such fuel hedging transactions will provide any particular level of protection against increased fuel costs. In 2018, we did not engage in any aviation fuel hedging activities.

7

We are subject to the risk of exchange rate fluctuations.

We operate our business in many countries and territories. We generate revenue in different currencies, and our foreign currency liabilities are typically much higher than our foreign currency assets. Our purchases and leases of aircraft are mainly priced and settled in foreign currencies such as U.S. dollars. Fluctuations in exchange rates will affect our costs incurred from foreign purchases such as aircraft, flight equipment and aviation fuel, and take-off and landing charges in foreign airports. As of December 31, 2018, our total interest-bearing liabilities denominated in foreign currencies amounted to approximately RMB40,082 million, of which U.S. dollar liabilities accounted for approximately 71.1%. Therefore, a significant fluctuation in the U.S. dollar exchange rates will subject us to significant foreign exchange loss/gain arising from the exchange of foreign currency denominated liabilities, which would affect our profitability and business development. We typically use hedging contracts for foreign currencies to reduce the foreign exchange risks for foreign currency revenues generated from flight ticket sales and expenses required to be paid in foreign currencies. As of December 31, 2018, the outstanding foreign currency hedging contracts held by us amounted to a notional amount of US$655 million, which will expire in 2019, compared with US$829 million as of December 31, 2017.

We recorded net foreign exchange losses of approximately RMB2,040 million in 2018, whereas we recorded net foreign exchange gains of approximately RMB2,001 million for 2017. As a result of the large value of existing net foreign currency liabilities denominated in U.S. dollars, our results would be adversely affected if the Renminbi depreciates against the U.S. dollar or the rate of appreciation of the Renminbi against the U.S. dollar decreases in the future. In 2017 and the first quarter of 2018, we expanded our financing channels by issuing guaranteed bonds and credit enhanced bonds denominated in SGD and JPY, and proactively optimized the mix of currency denomination of our debts. As of December 31, 2018, our proportion of U.S. dollar-denominated debts out of our total liabilities decreased to approximately 21.5% from 28.2% as of December 31, 2017. Our foreign exchange fluctuation risks are also subject to other factors beyond our control.

We are subject to the risk of interest rate fluctuations.

Our total interest-bearing liabilities (including long-term and short-term bank borrowings, finance leases payables, bonds payable and super short-term debentures) as of December 31, 2017 and 2018 were approximately RMB130,669 million and RMB132,579 million, respectively, of which short-term liabilities accounted for approximately 37.0% and 29.1%, respectively, and long-term liabilities accounted for approximately 63.0% and 70.9%, respectively. Most of the long-term interest-bearing liabilities were liabilities with floating interest rates. Both the short-term liabilities and long-term interest-bearing liabilities were affected by fluctuations in current market interest rates.

Our interest-bearing liabilities were primarily denominated in RMB and USD. As of December 31, 2017 and December 31, 2018, our liabilities denominated in RMB accounted for approximately 64.2% and 69.8% of our total liabilities, respectively, and liabilities denominated in USD accounted for approximately 28.2% and 21.5% of our total liabilities, respectively. Fluctuations in interest rates of interest-bearing liabilities denominated in these two currencies have and will continue to have significant impact on our finance costs. As of December 31, 2018, the average interest rates of our RMB-denominated liabilities, USD-denominated liabilities, EUR-denominated liabilities, SGD-denominated liabilities, KRW-denominated liabilities and JPY-denominated liabilities was approximately 4.1%, 3.4%, 0.2%, 2.8%, 2.3% and 0.6%, respectively. In the first quarter of 2018, we also issued credit enhanced bonds denominated in JPY with total principal of JPY50.0 billion due in 2021, bearing fixed interest at the rate of 0.33% per annum and 0.64% per annum for different tranches. To cope with the risk of interest rate fluctuation, we strategically changed our debt portfolio by replacing our USD-denominated liabilities with floating interest rates with USD-denominated liabilities with fixed interest rates. As of December 31, 2018, our USD-denominated liabilities with fixed interest rate was approximately USD367 million and accounted for approximately 11.1% of our total long-term USD-denominated liabilities, increasing from approximately 7.6% as of December 31, 2017. As of December 31, 2018, our outstanding foreign currency interest rate swap contracts amounted to a notional amount of USD1,102 million, as compared to USD1,420 million as of December 31, 2017. These contracts will expire between 2019 and 2025. We will continue to optimize our liability structure to lower relevant risks by taking consideration of various factors including the market environment, interest rates and strategic plan. However, we cannot assure you that the relevant lending rates may not increase in the future for reasons beyond our control, which may adversely affect our business, prospects, cash flows, financial condition and results of operations. In addition, we expect to issue bonds and notes or enter into additional loan agreements and aircraft leases in the future to fund our operations and capital expenditures, and the cost of financing for these obligations will depend greatly on market interest rates.

8

Increases in insurance costs or reductions in insurance coverage may have adverse impact our results of operations and financial condition.

We could be exposed to significant liability or loss if our property or operations were to be affected by a natural catastrophe or other event, including aircraft accidents. We maintain insurance policies but we are not fully insured against all potential hazards and risks incident to our business. If we are unable to obtain sufficient insurance with acceptable terms or if the coverage obtained is insufficient relative to actual liability or losses that we experience, whether due to insurance market conditions, policy limitations and exclusions or otherwise, our results of operations and financial condition could be adversely affected.

We may experience difficulty integrating our acquisitions, which could result in a material adverse effect on our operations and financial condition.

We may from time to time expand our business through acquisition of airlines or airline-related businesses. We are devoting significant resources to the integration of our operations in order to achieve the anticipated synergies and benefits of the absorption and acquisitions mentioned above. See “Item 4. Information on the Company” for details. However, such acquisitions involve uncertainties and a number of risks, including:

We cannot assure you that we will not have difficulties in assimilating the operations, technologies, services and products of newly acquired companies or businesses. Moreover, the continued integration of our acquired companies into our Company depends significantly on integrating the employees of our acquired companies with our employees and on maintaining productive employee relations. In the event that we are unable to efficiently and effectively integrate newly acquired companies or airline-related businesses into our Company, we may be unable to achieve the objectives or anticipated synergies of such acquisitions and such acquisitions may adversely impact the operations and financial results of our existing businesses.

We may be unable to retain key management personnel or pilots.

We are dependent on the experience and industry knowledge of our key management personnel and pilots, and there can be no assurance that we will be able to retain them. Any inability to retain our key management employees or pilots, or attract and retain additional qualified management employees or pilots, could have a negative impact on our operations and profitability.

9

Our controlling shareholder, CEA Holding, holds a majority interest in our Company, and its interests may not be aligned with other shareholders.

Most of the major airlines in China are currently majority-owned by either the central government or provincial or municipal governments in China. As of December 31, 2018, CEA Holding holds directly or indirectly 56.38% of our Company’s equity stake on behalf of the PRC government. As a result, CEA Holding could potentially elect the majority of the board of directors of the Company (“Board of Directors” or the “Board”) and otherwise be able to control us. CEA Holding also has sufficient voting control to effect transactions without the concurrence of our minority shareholders. The interests of the PRC government as the ultimate controlling shareholder of our Company and most of the other major PRC airlines could conflict with the interests of our minority shareholders. Although the CAAC currently has a policy of equal treatment of all PRC airlines, we cannot assure you that the CAAC will not favor other PRC airlines over our Company.

As our controlling shareholder, CEA Holding has the ability to exercise controlling influence over our business and affairs, including, but not limited to, decisions with respect to:

We engage in related party transactions, which may result in conflict of interests.

We have engaged in, from time to time, and may continue to engage in, in the future, a variety of transactions with CEA Holding and its various members, from whom we receive a number of important services, including support for in-flight catering and assistance with importation of aircraft, flight equipment and spare parts. Because we are controlled by CEA Holding and CEA Holding may have interests that conflict with our interests, we cannot assure you that CEA Holding will not take actions that will serve its interests over the Company’s interests.

We may not be able to accurately report our financial results or prevent fraud if we fail to maintain effective internal controls over financial reporting, resulting in adverse investor perception, which in turn could have a material adverse effect on our reputation and the performance of our shares and ADSs.

We are required under relevant United States securities laws and regulations to disclose in the reports that we file or submit under the Exchange Act to the SEC, including our annual report on Form 20-F, a management report assessing the effectiveness of our internal controls over financial reporting at the end of the fiscal year. Our registered public accounting firm is also required to provide an attestation report on the effectiveness of our internal controls over financial reporting. Our management concluded that our internal controls over financial reporting were effective as of December 31, 2018. However, we may discover other deficiencies or material weaknesses in the course of our future evaluation of our internal controls over financial reporting and we may be unable to address and rectify such deficiencies in a timely manner. Any failure to maintain effective internal controls over financial reporting could lead to diminished investor confidence in the reliability of our consolidated financial statements, thereby adversely affecting our business, operations, and reputation, including negatively affecting our performance in the securities markets and decreasing potential opportunities to obtain financing in the capital markets.

As part of our business strategy, we have adopted various measures to develop the international side of our business and to enhance our competitiveness in the international long-distance flight routes. Due to the differences in certain legal and market environments, we have encountered certain challenges during the course of developing our overseas business. We have already adopted and will continue to implement measures in order to enhance the internal controls of our overseas offices and to continue the development of our overseas business.

10

Any failure or disruption of our computer, communications, flight equipment or other technology systems could have an adverse impact on our business operations, profitability, reputation and customer services.

We rely heavily on computer, communications, flight equipment and other technology systems to operate our business and enhance customer service. Substantially all of our tickets are issued to passengers as electronic tickets, and we depend on our computerized reservation system to be able to issue, track and accept these electronic tickets. In addition, we rely on other automated systems for crew scheduling, flight dispatch and other operational needs. These systems could be disrupted due to various events, including natural disasters, power failures, terrorist attacks, equipment failures, software failures, computer viruses, cyber attacks and other events beyond our control. We cannot assure you that the measures we have taken to reduce the risk of some of these potential disruptions are adequate to prevent disruptions to or failures of these systems. Any substantial or repeated failure of or disruption to these systems could result in the loss of important data and/or flight delays, and could have an adverse impact on our business operations, profitability, reputation and customer services, including being liable for paying compensation to our customers.

We are subject to cyber security risks and may incur increasing costs in an effort to minimize those risks.

The nature of our business involves the receipt and storage of personal information about our customers. We have a program in place to detect and respond to data security incidents. To date, all incidents we have encountered have been insignificant. If we commit a significant data security breach or fail to detect and appropriately respond to a significant data security breach, we could be exposed to government enforcement actions and private litigation. In addition, our customers could lose confidence in our ability to protect their personal information, which could cause them to stop using our services. The loss of consumer confidence from a significant data security breach could hurt our reputation and adversely affect our business, result of operations and financial condition.

Actual or anticipated attacks may cause us to incur increasing costs, including costs to deploy additional personnel and protection technologies, train employees and engage third-party experts and consultants, costs incurred in connection with the notifications to employees, suppliers or the general public as part of our notification obligations to the various government authorities that govern our business, or costs to dedicate significant resources to system repairs or other increase cyber security protection. We may also be required to pay fines in connection with stolen customer, employee or other confidential information, or incur significant litigation or other costs.

Interruptions or disruptions of service at one or more airports in our primary market could have an adverse impact on us.

Our business is heavily dependent on our operations at our core hub airports in Shanghai, namely, Hongqiao International Airport and Pudong International Airport and our regional hub airports in Xi’an and Kunming. Each of these operations includes flights that connect our primary market to other major cities. Any significant interruptions or disruptions of service at one or more of our primary market airports could adversely impact our operations.

Any adverse public health developments, including SARS, Ebola, avian flu, or influenza A (H1N1), or the occurrence of natural disasters may, among other things, lead to travel restrictions and reduced levels of economic activity in the affected areas, which may in turn significantly reduce demand for our services and have a material adverse effect on our financial condition and results of operations.

Adverse public health epidemics or pandemics could disrupt businesses and the national economy of China and other countries where we do business. The outbreak of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome, or SARS, in early 2003 led to a significant decline in travel volumes and business activities and substantially affected businesses in Asia. Moreover, some Asian countries, including China, have encountered incidents of the H5N1 strain of avian flu, many of which have resulted in fatalities. In addition, outbreaks of, and sporadic human infection with, influenza A (H1N1) in 2009, a highly contagious acute respiratory disease, were reported in Mexico and an increasing number of countries around the world, some cases resulting in fatalities. In addition, in April 2013, there has been an ongoing outbreak of the H7N9 strain of avian flu, which has largely been centered in eastern China, and has resulted in fatalities in that region, including Shanghai. Furthermore, in 2014, an outbreak of Ebola virus, a highly contagious hemorrhagic fever with a relatively high fatality rate, in certain African countries resulted in confirmed cases in the United States and Europe. We are unable to predict the potential impact, if any, that the outbreak of influenza A (H1N1) or any other serious contagious disease or the effects of another outbreak of SARS, any strain of avian flu or Ebola may have on our business.

11

Natural disasters, such as earthquakes, snowstorms, floods or volcanic eruptions such as that of Eyjafjallajökull in Iceland in April and May of 2010 and the natural disasters in Japan in early 2011 may disrupt or seriously affect air travel activity. Any period of sustained disruption to the airline industry may have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Terrorist attacks or the fear of such attacks, even if not made directly on the airline industry, could negatively affect the Company and the airline industry as a whole. The travel industry continues to face on-going security concerns and cost burdens.

The aviation industry as a whole has been beset with high-profile terrorist attacks, most notably on September 11, 2001 in the United States. The CAAC has also implemented increased security measures in relation to the potential threat of terrorist attacks. Terrorist attacks, even if not made directly towards us or on the airline industry, or the fear of or the precautions taken in anticipation of such attacks (including elevated threat warnings or selective cancellation or redirection of flights) could materially and adversely affect us and the entire airline industry. In addition, potential or actual terrorist attacks may result in substantial flight disruption costs caused by grounding of fleet, significant increase of security costs and associated passenger inconvenience, increased insurance costs, substantially higher ticket refunds and significantly decreased traffic and RPK. International terrorist attacks targeting aircraft and airport not only directly threatens our flight safety, aviation security, operational safety and the safety of overseas institutions and employees, but also brings about on-going adverse impact on the outbound tourism demand for places where terrorist attacks have taken place.

Risks Relating to the Aviation Industry

Our business is subject to extensive government regulation.

The Chinese civil aviation industry is subject to a high degree of regulation by the CAAC. Regulatory policies issued or implemented by the CAAC encompass virtually every aspect of airline operations, including, among other things:

Our ability to provide services on international routes is subject to a variety of bilateral civil air transport agreements between China and other countries, international aviation conventions and local aviation laws. As a result of government regulations, we may face significant constraints on our flexibility and ability to expand our business operations or to maximize our profitability.

The downward trend in domestic and global economy could affect air travel.

The airline industry is highly cyclical, and the level of demand for air travel is correlated to the strength of domestic and global economies. Robust demand for our air transportation services depends largely on favorable general economic conditions, including the strength of global and local economies, low unemployment, strong consumer confidence and availability of consumer and business credit. In 2018, the global economy generally continued to recover, yet with the emergence of the influence of trade protectionism and unilateralism, the growth of the global economy has slowed down. In China, the economy remained in a reasonable range as a whole, whilst facing the pressure of downturn. The global airline industry has continued to grow with a deceleration in growth rate. China’s civil aviation industry continued to maintain a more rapid above double-digit growth rate, while at the same time also facing challenges such as rise in fuel average prices, fluctuations in RMB-USD exchange rate, intensifying market competition and constraints in core time period resources. However, we cannot assure you that such recovery and growth will continue in the future. The global economy is facing uncertainties, such as the rise of trade protectionism and the occasional occurrence of geopolitical risks. If the macroeconomic climate worsens or trading dispute and conflicts are created, our operations and financial condition may be adversely affected.

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We operate in a highly competitive industry.

We face intense competition in each of the domestic, regional and international markets that we serve. In our domestic market, we compete against all airlines that have the same routes, including smaller domestic airlines that have lower operating costs. In the regional and international markets, we compete against international airlines that have significantly longer operating history, better brand recognition, or more resources, such as large sales networks or sophisticated reservation systems. See the section headed “Item 4. Information on the Company — Business Overview — Competition” for more details. The public’s perception of safety of Chinese airlines could also materially and adversely affect our ability to compete against our international competitors. To stay competitive, we have, from time to time in the past, lowered airfares for certain of our routes, and we may continue to do so in the future. Increased competition and pricing pressures may have a material adverse effect on our financial condition and results of operations.

We expect to face substantial competition from the rapid development of the Chinese rail network.

The PRC government is aggressively implementing the expansion of its high-speed rail network, which has provided train services at a speed of up to 350 kilometers per hour connecting major cities such as Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou and Hong Kong. The expansion of rail network, improvements in railway service quality, increased passenger capacity and urban center accessibility could enhance the competitiveness of the railway service and negatively affect our market share on some of our key routes, in particular our routes of between 500 km to 800 km. The high-speed railway routes in Yunnan Province gradually commenced operations in 2018, and has affected our routes in Yunnan Province. Increased competition and pricing pressures from the railway service may have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Limitations on foreign ownership of PRC airlines may affect our access to funding in the international equity capital markets or pursuing business opportunities.

The current CAAC policies limit foreign ownership of PRC airlines. Under these rules, non-PRC, Hong Kong, Macau or Taiwan residents cannot hold a majority equity interest in a PRC airline. As of December 31, 2018, approximately 32.20% of our total outstanding shares were held by non-PRC, Hong Kong, Macau or Taiwan residents or legal entities (excluding the qualified foreign institutional investors that are approved to invest in the A Share market of the PRC). As a result, our access to funding in the international equity capital markets may be limited. This restriction may also limit the opportunities available to us to obtain funding or other benefits through the creation of equity-based strategic alliances with foreign carriers. We cannot assure you that the CAAC will not increase these limits on foreign ownership of PRC airlines in the future.

Any jet fuel shortages or any increase in jet fuel prices may materially and adversely affect our financial condition and results of operations.

The availability and prices of jet fuel have a significant impact on our financial condition and results of operations. In the past, jet fuel shortages have occurred in China and, on limited occasions, required us to delay or cancel flights. Although jet fuel shortages have not occurred since the end of 1993, we cannot assure you that jet fuel shortages will not occur in the future. Fuel prices continue to be susceptible to, among other factors, political unrest in various parts of the world, OPEC policies, the rapid growth of the economies of certain countries, including China and India, the inventory levels carried by industries, the amount of reserves built by governments, disruptions to production and refining facilities and weather conditions. Fuel efficiency of our aircraft decreases as they advance in age which results in an overall increase in our aviation fuel costs. The foregoing and other factors that impact the global supply and demand for jet fuel may affect our financial performance due to its sensitivity to fuel prices.

In 2018, fuel prices recovered from the previous decline which was mainly due to an increase in average price of oil as the increased oil production volume of OPEC and other oil suppliers was lower than that the market expected and the political upheaval in the Middle East and Venezuela increased the uncertainty of oil production. Setting aside the adjustment in factors such as fuel surcharge, if the average price of jet fuel had increased or decreased by 5%, our jet fuel costs would have increased or decreased by approximately RMB1,684 million in 2018. In addition, the NDRC adjusts gasoline and diesel prices in China from time to time, taking into account the changes in international oil prices, thereby affecting aviation fuel prices. In 2018, we have not conducted aviation fuel hedging activities. As such, we cannot assure you that jet fuel prices will not fluctuate further in the future. Due to the highly competitive nature of the airline industry, we may be unable to fully or effectively pass on to our customers any future increase in jet fuel costs.

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The airline industry is subject to increasing environmental regulations, which would increase costs and affect profitability.

In recent years, regulatory authorities in China and other countries have issued a number of directives and other regulations to address, among other things, aircraft noise and engine emissions, the use and handling of hazardous materials, aircraft age and environmental contamination remedial clean-up measures. These requirements impose high fees, taxes and substantial ongoing compliance costs on airlines, particularly as new aircraft brought into service will have to meet the environmental requirements during their entire service life.

We have significant expenditures in respect of environmental compliance, which may affect our operations and financial condition. For example, 30 of our B737NG and 21 of our A320 series aircraft completed modification with a winglet or sharklet, an additional lifting surface to reduce fuel consumption and noises, in 2018. We also took measures to reduce the impact of our operations on the environment by optimizing our route network and flight schedules as well as installing energy-saving environmentally friendly engines. In addition, we continue to improve the energy efficiency of our fleet by introducing aircraft with energy-saving technologies, such as A320neo and by retiring old aircraft. However, these measures have resulted in significant costs and expenditures. We expect to continue to incur significant costs and expenditures on an ongoing basis to comply with environmental regulations, which could restrict our ability to modify or expand facilities or continue operations.

Our results of operations tend to be volatile and fluctuate due to seasonality.

The aviation industry is characterized by annual high and low travel seasons. Our operating revenue is substantially dependent on the passenger and cargo traffic volume carried, which is subject to seasonal and other changes in traffic patterns, the availability of appropriate time slots for our flights and alternative routes, the degree of competition from other airlines and alternate means of transportation, as well as other factors that may influence passenger travel demand and cargo and mail volume. As a result, our results tend to be volatile and subject to rapid and unexpected change.

Risks Relating to the PRC

Changes in the economic policies of the PRC government may materially affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Since the late 1970s, the PRC government has been reforming the Chinese economic system. These reforms have resulted in significant economic growth and social progress. These policies and measures may be modified or revised from time to time. Adverse changes in economic and social conditions in China, in the policies of the PRC government or in the laws and regulations of China, if any, may have a material adverse effect on the overall economic growth of China and investments in and profitability of the domestic airline industry. These developments, in turn, may have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Changes in the foreign exchange regulations in the PRC may result in fluctuations of the Renminbi and adversely affect our ability to pay dividends or to satisfy our foreign currency liabilities.

A significant portion of our revenue and operating expenses are denominated in Renminbi, while a portion of our revenue, capital expenditures and debts are denominated in U.S. dollars and other foreign currencies. The Renminbi is currently freely convertible in the current account, which includes payment of dividends, trade and service-related foreign currency transactions, but not in the capital account, which includes foreign direct investment, unless approval from or registration or filing with the relevant authorities, is obtained. As a foreign invested enterprise approved by the PRC Ministry of Commerce (the “MOFCOM”), we can purchase foreign currencies without the approval of State Administration of Foreign Exchange (the “SAFE”) for settlement of current account transactions, including for the purpose of dividend payment, by providing commercial documents evidencing these transactions. We can also retain foreign currencies in our current accounts, subject to a maximum amount approved by SAFE, to satisfy foreign currency liabilities or pay dividends. The relevant PRC government authorities may limit or eliminate our ability to purchase and retain foreign currencies in the future. Foreign currency transactions in the capital account are still subject to limitations and require approvals from SAFE. This may affect our ability to raise foreign capital through debt or equity financing, including through loans or capital contributions. We cannot assure you that we will be able to obtain sufficient foreign currencies to pay dividends, if any, or satisfy our foreign currency liabilities.

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Furthermore, the value of the Renminbi against the U.S. dollar and other currencies may fluctuate significantly and is affected by, among other things, the PRC government policies, domestic and international economic and political conditions and changes in the supply and demand of the currency. On July 21, 2005, the PRC government changed its policy of pegging the value of the Renminbi to the U.S. dollar. Under the new policy, the Renminbi is permitted to fluctuate within a narrow and managed band against a basket of certain foreign currencies. This change in policy resulted in appreciation of the Renminbi against the U.S. dollar by approximately 7.0% in 2008. While there was no material appreciation of Renminbi against the U.S. dollar in 2009, the Renminbi appreciated by approximately 3.0% against the U.S. dollar in 2010 and by approximately 5.1% in 2011. In April 2012, the PBOC widened the daily trading band of the Renminbi against the U.S. dollar, and the Renminbi was allowed to appreciate or depreciate by 1.0% from the PBOC central parity rate, effective April 16, 2012. In March 2014, the PBOC further widened the daily trading band of the Renminbi against the U.S. dollar, and the Renminbi was allowed to appreciate or depreciate by 2% against the U.S. dollar from the daily central parity rate, effective March 17, 2014. On August 11, 2015, the PBOC executed a 2% devaluation in the Renminbi. Within the following two days, the Renminbi depreciated 3.5% against the U.S. dollar. The Renminbi depreciated 6.7% against the U.S. dollar from January 4, 2016 to December 30, 2016. The Renminbi appreciated 6.3% against the U.S. dollar for the year ended December 31, 2017. The Renminbi depreciated 2.0% against the U.S. dollar for the year ended December 31, 2018. However, it remains unclear what further fluctuations may occur or what impact this will have on the value of the Renminbi. It is possible that the PRC government could adopt a more flexible foreign exchange policy, which could result in further and more significant revaluations of the Renminbi against the U.S. dollar or any other foreign currency. Any resulting fluctuations in exchange rates as a result of such policy changes may have an adverse effect on our financial condition and results of operations.

Our operations may be adversely affected by rising inflation rates in the PRC.

Increase in inflation is due to many factors beyond our control, such as rising production and labor costs, high debts, changes in the PRC and foreign governmental policy and regulations, and movements in exchange rates and interest rates. The national consumer price index, which is an indicator of the inflation, was 2.0%, 1.6% and 2.1% in 2016, 2017 and 2018, respectively. The national consumer price index was 1.7%, 1.5% and 2.3% in January, February and March 2019, respectively. We cannot assure you that inflation rates will not increase in the future. If inflation rates rise beyond our expectations, the costs of our business operations may become significantly higher than anticipated, and we may be unable to pass on such higher costs to consumers in amounts that are sufficient to cover those increasing operating costs. As a result, further inflationary pressures in the PRC may have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations, as well as our liquidity and profitability.

Any withdrawal of, or changes to, tax incentives in the PRC may adversely affect our results of operations and financial condition.

Prior to January 1, 2008, except for a number of preferential tax treatment schemes available to various enterprises, industries and locations, business enterprises in China were subject to an enterprise income tax rate of 33% under the relevant PRC Enterprise Income Tax Law. On March 16, 2007, China passed a new enterprise income tax law, or the EIT Law, which took effect on January 1, 2008 and amended on February 24, 2017 and December 29, 2018. The EIT Law imposes a uniform income tax rate of 25% for domestic enterprises and foreign invested enterprises. Business enterprises enjoying preferential tax treatment that was extended for a fixed term prior to January 1, 2008 will still be entitled to such treatment until such fixed term expires. Certain of our subsidiaries are entitled to preferential tax treatment, allowing us to enjoy a lower effective tax rate that would not otherwise be available to us. To the extent that there are any increases in the applicable effective tax rate, withdrawals of, or changes in, our preferential tax treatment or tax exemptions, our tax liability may increase correspondingly.

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Uncertainties embodied in the PRC legal system may limit certain legal protection available to investors.

The PRC legal system is a civil law system based on written statutes. Unlike common law systems, decided legal cases have little precedential value. In 1979, the PRC government began to promulgate a comprehensive system of laws and regulations governing economic matters in general. Legislation over the past 20 years has significantly enhanced the protection afforded to foreign investors in China. However, the interpretation and enforcement of some of these laws and regulations involve uncertainties that may limit the legal protection available to investors. Such uncertainties pervade as the legal system in the PRC continues to evolve. Even where adequate laws exist in the PRC, the enforcement of the existing laws or contracts may be uncertain and sporadic, and it may be difficult to obtain swift and equitable enforcement, including enforcing a foreign judgment. In addition, the PRC legal system is based on written statutes and their interpretation; prior court decisions may be cited as reference but have limited authority as precedents. As such, any litigation in the PRC may be protracted and result in substantial costs and diversion of our resources and management attention. We have full or majority board control over the management and operation of all of our subsidiaries established in the PRC. The control over these PRC entities and the exercise of shareholder rights are subject to their respective articles of association and PRC laws applicable to foreign-invested enterprises in the PRC, which may be different from the laws of other developed jurisdictions.

The PRC has not developed a fully integrated legal system and certain recently enacted laws and regulations may not sufficiently cover all aspects of economic activities in the PRC. The relative lack of experience of the PRC’s judiciary in many cases also creates additional uncertainty as to the outcome of any litigation. In addition, interpretation of statutes and regulations may be subject to government policies reflecting domestic political changes. Furthermore, in case of new laws and regulations, the interpretation, implementation and enforcement of these laws and regulations would involve uncertainties due to the lack of established practice or published court decisions available for reference. We cannot predict the future legal development in the PRC, including promulgation of new laws, changes to existing laws or interpretation or enforcement thereof, or inconsistencies between the local rules and regulations and the national law. In addition, the PRC legal system is based in part on government policies and internal rules (some of which are not published in a timely manner or at all) that may have a retroactive effect. As a result, we may not be aware of any violations until sometime after the violation has occurred. This may also limit the remedies available to investors and to us in the event of any claims or disputes with third parties.

The auditors’ reports included in this annual report are prepared by relying on audit work which is not inspected by the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board and, as such, investors may be deprived of the benefits of such inspection.

Auditors of companies that are registered with the SEC and traded publicly in the United States, including our independent registered public accounting firm, must be registered with the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (United States), or the PCAOB, and are required by the laws of the United States to undergo regular inspections by the PCAOB to assess their compliance with the laws of the United States and professional standards. Because we have substantial operations within China, our auditor relied on its China affiliate to perform audits on our consolidated financial statements, and the PCAOB is currently unable to conduct inspections of the work done by our auditor as it relates to our operations without the approval of the Chinese authorities, our auditor’s work related to our operations in China is not currently inspected by the PCAOB. This lack of PCAOB inspection of audit work performed in China prevents the PCAOB from regularly evaluating the audit work performed by any auditor in China including our auditor. As a result, investors may be deprived of the full benefits of PCAOB inspections. On December 7, 2018, the SEC and the PCAOB issued a joint statement highlighting continued challenges faced by the U.S. regulators in their oversight of financial statement audits of U.S.-listed companies with significant operations in China. The joint statement reflected a heightened interest in an issue that has vexed U.S. regulators in recent years. However, it remains unclear what further actions the SEC and PCAOB will take to address the problem.

The inability of the PCAOB to conduct inspections of audit work performed in China makes it more difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of our auditor’s audit procedures as compared to auditors in other jurisdictions that are subject to PCAOB inspections for all their work. Investors may lose confidence in our reported financial information and procedures and the quality of our consolidated financial statements.

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Proceedings instituted by the SEC against certain PRC-based accounting firms, including the China affiliate of our independent registered public accounting firm, could result in financial statements being determined not to comply with the requirements of the Exchange Act.

In December 2012, the SEC brought administrative proceedings against five accounting firms in China, including the Chinese affiliate of our then independent registered public accounting firm, alleging that they had refused to produce audit work papers and other documents related to certain other China-based companies under investigation by the SEC. On January 22, 2014, an initial administrative law decision was issued, censuring these accounting firms and suspending four of these firms from practicing before the SEC for a period of six months. The decision is neither final nor legally effective unless and until reviewed and approved by the SEC. On February 12, 2014, four of these PRC-based accounting firms appealed to the SEC against this decision. In February 2015, each of the four PRC-based accounting firms agreed to pay a fine to the SEC to settle the dispute and avoid suspension of their ability to practice before the SEC. The settlement requires the firms to follow detailed procedures to provide the SEC with access to the Chinese firms’ audit documents via the China Securities Regulatory Commission ( the “CSRC” ). If the firms do not follow these procedures, the SEC could impose sanctions such as suspensions, or it could restart the administrative proceedings.

In the event that the SEC restarts the administrative proceedings, depending upon the final outcome, listed companies in the United States with major PRC operations may find it difficult or impossible to retain auditors in respect of their operations in the PRC, which could result in financial statements being determined not to be in compliance with the requirements of the Exchange Act, and possibly delisting of the securities. Moreover, any negative news about the proceedings against these audit firms may cause investor uncertainty regarding China-based U.S.-listed companies and the market price of our ADSs may be adversely affected.

If the Chinese affiliate of our independent registered public accounting firm was denied, even temporarily, the ability to practice before the SEC and we were unable to find another registered public accounting firm in a timely manner to audit and issue an opinion on our financial statements, our financial statements could be determined not to be in compliance with the requirements of the Exchange Act. Such determination could ultimately lead to our delisting from the NYSE or deregistration from the SEC, or both, which would substantially reduce or effectively terminate the trading of our ADSs in the United States.

Item 4. Information on the Company

A. History and Development of the Company

Our registered office is located at 66 Airport Street, Pudong International Airport, Shanghai, China, 201202. Our principal executive office and mailing address is 5/F, Block A2, Northern District, CEA Building, 36 Hongxiang 3rd Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, China. The telephone number of our principal executive office is (86-21) 6268-6268 and the fax number for the Board Secretariat’s office is (86-21) 6268-6116. We currently do not have an agent for service of process in the United States.

Our Company, China Eastern Airlines Corporation Limited was established on April 14, 1995 under the laws of China as a company limited by shares in connection with the restructuring of our predecessor and our initial public offering. We are commercially known in the industry as China Eastern Airlines. Our predecessor was one of the six original airlines established in 1988 as part of the decentralization of the airline industry in China undertaken in connection with China’s overall economic reform efforts. Prior to 1988, the CAAC was responsible for all aspects of civil aviation in China, including the regulation and operation of China’s airlines and airports. In connection with our initial public offering, our predecessor was restructured into two separate legal entities, our Company and EA Group. According to the restructuring arrangement, by operation of law, our Company succeeded to substantially all of the assets and liabilities relating to the airline business of our predecessor. EA Group succeeded to our predecessor’s assets and liabilities that do not directly relate to the airline operations and do not compete with our businesses. Assets transferred to EA Group included our predecessor’s equity interests in companies engaged in import and export, real estate, advertising, in-flight catering, tourism and certain other businesses. In connection with the restructuring, we entered into various agreements with EA Group and its subsidiaries for the provision of certain services to our Company. CEA Holding assumed the rights and liabilities of EA Group under these agreements after it was formed by merging EA Group, Yunnan Airlines Company and China Northwest Airlines Company in October 2002. See “Item 7. Major Shareholders and Related Party Transactions” for more details.

The following chart sets forth the organizational structure of our Company and our significant subsidiaries as of December 31, 2018:

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In February 1997, we completed our initial public offering of 1,566,950,000 ordinary H Shares, par value RMB1.00 per share, and listed our ordinary H Shares on The Stock Exchange of Hong Kong Limited (the “Hong Kong Stock Exchange”), and American Depositary Shares, or ADSs, representing our H Shares, on the New York Stock Exchange. In October 1997, we completed a public offering of 300,000,000 new ordinary domestic shares in the form of A Shares to public shareholders in China and listed such new shares on the Shanghai Stock Exchange. H Shares are our ordinary shares listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange, and A Shares are our ordinary shares listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange. Our H Shares and A Shares are identical in respect of all rights and preferences, except that the listed A Shares may only be held by Chinese domestic investors and certain qualified foreign institutional investors. For information regarding our share capital structure, see “Item 10.B Memorandum and Articles of Association – Description of the Shares.” In addition, dividends on the A Shares are payable in Renminbi.

Since our initial public offering, we have expanded our operations through acquisitions and joint ventures.

On June 12, 2012, the Board of Directors resolved and approved to issue corporate bonds in the aggregate principal amount of not more than RMB8.8 billion and for a term of not more than ten years for a single or multiple issuances. We received the CSRC approval for this issuance on December 12, 2012. On March 20, 2013, we issued the first tranche of the corporate bonds in the amount of RMB4.8 billion at 5.05% due 2023. The use of proceeds from this issuance was to repay bank loans, improve our financing structure and replenish our short-term working capital.

On September 11, 2012, the Board of Directors resolved and approved the “Proposal for the non-public issuance of A Shares to specific placees by China Eastern Airlines Corporation Limited” and the “Proposal for the non-public issuance of H Shares to specific placees by China Eastern Airlines Corporation Limited,” according to which, (i) CEA Holdings and CES Finance would subscribe in cash for 241,547,927 and 457,317,073 new A Shares, respectively, at the subscription price of RMB3.28 per share; and (ii) CES Global Holdings (Hong Kong) Limited, an overseas wholly-owned subsidiary of CEA Holding, (“CES Global”) would subscribe in cash for 698,865,000 new H Shares (nominal value of RMB1.00 each) at the subscription price of HK$2.32 per share. On January 31, 2013, the CSRC approved our proposed issue of no more than 698,865,000 new H Shares with a nominal value of RMB1.00 each. The Public Offering Review Committee of the CSRC reviewed and conditionally approved our application relating to the non-public issue of new A Shares of the Company on February 25, 2012.

On December 27, 2012, our wholly-owned subsidiary, Shanghai Airlines Tours entered into an agreement with Eastern Tourism and Shanghai Dongmei to acquire 45% and 55% of the issued share capital of Xi’an Dongmei Aviation Travel Co. Ltd, held by them respectively for a consideration of approximately RMB3.3 million comprising approximately RMB1.5 million payable to Eastern Tourism and approximately RMB1.8 million payable to Shanghai Dongmei.

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On December 27, 2012, our wholly-owned subsidiary, Shanghai Airlines Tours also entered into another agreement with Eastern Tourism and Shanghai Dongmei to acquire 45% and 55% of the issued share capital of Kunming Dongmei, held by them respectively for a consideration of approximately RMB10.6 million comprising RMB4.7 million payable to Eastern Tourism and approximately RMB5.8 million payable to Shanghai Dongmei.

On January 10, 2013, our wholly-owned subsidiary, Shanghai Airlines Tours entered into an agreement with Eastern Tourism to acquire the entire issued share capital of Eastern Travel held by Eastern Tourism Investment Group Co., Ltd for consideration of approximately RMB11.9 million.

On April 9, 2013, the Company obtained an approval from the CSRC, pursuant to which the CSRC approved the non-public issue by the Company for no more than 698,865,000 new A Shares. On April 16, 2013, the procedure for registration of the new A Shares with the Shanghai Branch of China Securities Depository & Clearing Co. Ltd. was completed. The 698,865,000 new A Shares, at an issue price of RMB3.28 per share, under this issue are subject to a lock-up period of 36 months from the completion date of the issue and are expected to be listed on April 17, 2016.

On June 21, 2013, we completed the issuance of new H Shares. A total of 698,865,000 new H Shares were issued, at the price of HK$2.32 per share, to CES Global.

On October 29, 2013, the Board of Directors resolved and approved that the Company inject RMB36 million into CES Media.

On July 17, 2014, Eastern Air Overseas (Hong Kong) Corporation Limited (“EAO”) our wholly-owned subsidiary, and Jetstar Hong Kong Airways Limited (“Jetstar Hong Kong”), an associated company of the Company, entered into a loan agreement, pursuant to which EAO will provide a loan of US$60 million to Jetstar Hong Kong at fair market interest rates. The principal of the loan was repaid on April 30, 2015.

On August 15, 2014, Shanghai Airlines Tours, our wholly-owned subsidiary, entered into an equity transfer agreement with Eastern Tourism, pursuant to which, Shanghai Airlines Tours acquired 72.84% equity interest in Shanghai Dongmei from Eastern Tourism with consideration of RMB32,147,700. This acquisition has been completed and Shanghai Dongmei has become our indirect holding company.

On December 22, 2014, our Company, CEA Holding and CES Finance (as shareholders of Eastern Air Finance agreed to inject a total of RMB1,500 million into Eastern Air Finance in proportion according to their respective shareholding in Eastern Air Finance. In February 2015, we contributed a pro-rata amount of RMB375 million in cash.

On March 29, 2015, China United Airlines, our wholly-owned subsidiary, fully adopted the low-cost carrier service model.

On May 30, 2015, we received approval from the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology to offer in-flight Wi-Fi services using KU-band satellite onboard 21 aircraft.

On July 9, 2015 we entered into the B737 Aircraft Purchase Agreement with Boeing Company in Shanghai to purchase fifty B737 series aircraft from Boeing Company.

On July 27, 2015, we entered into a conditional subscription agreement (“Subscription Agreement”) with Delta Air Lines, Inc. (“Delta Air Lines”), pursuant to which Delta Air Lines agreed to subscribe for 465,910,000 shares of the newly issued ordinary H shares of the Company in an amount of HK$3,488,895,000, representing approximately 3.5% of the total share capital of the Company. On September 9, 2015, we completed the issue of 465,910,000 ordinary H shares to Delta Airlines, with a par value of RMB1.00 each at an issue price of HK$7.49 per share.

On August 14, 2015, the Board of Directors approved the “Resolution on the Termination of the Proposed Establishment of Jetstar Hong Kong and its Winding Up”. The Board of Directors considers that the termination of the proposed establishment of Jetstar Hong Kong will have no material adverse impact on the financial conditions and production and operation of the Company.

On August 28, 2015, we formally established the foreign airlines service center.

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On September 1, 2015, Delta Air Lines and we entered into a marketing agreement and a letter of confirmation on the Subscription Agreement. Pursuant to the marketing agreement, both parties will have greater cooperation in terms of code-share, revenue management, schedule coordination, sales cooperation, airport facilities sharing, frequent-flyer program, lounge and system investment as well as staff exchange. Pursuant to the letter of confirmation on the Subscription Agreement, as of September 1, 2015, all conditions precedent to the Subscription Agreement had been fulfilled except for those conditions that will be fulfilled on the completion date of share subscription. On September 9, 2015, we completed the issue of 465,910,000 ordinary H shares with a par value of RMB1.00 each at an issue price of HK$7.49 per share.

On November 6, 2015, the Civil Aviation Administration of China officially announced and granted the “Safe Flight Diamond Award”, the highest award for flight safety in the PRC civil aviation industry, to the Company.

In January 2016, we received the “Approval for the Non-Public Issuance of A Shares by China Eastern Airlines Corporation Limited” (Zheng Jian Xu Ke [2016] No. 8) issued by the CSRC, approving us to issue not more than 2,329,192,546 A Shares by way of non-public issuance.

On February 8, 2017, we completed the transfer of 100% equity interest in Eastern Logistics to Eastern Airlines Industry Investment and the nine freighters operated by China Cargo Airlines ceased to be included in our fleet.

On November 16, 2017, EAO issued corporate SGD-denominated guaranteed bonds in an amount of SGD500,000,000 at 2.8% due 2020, which was listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange on November 17, 2017. The Company guaranteed the bond issue. See Note 39 to the consolidated financial statements for more information.

On March 1, 2018, we entered into contractual operation agreement and operation cost agreement with China Cargo Airlines, pursuant to which, China Cargo Airlines (as contractor) will operate the bellyhold space business and reimburse the contractual fee to us, and we will reimburse the operation cost of the bellyhold space business to China Cargo Airlines.

On March 9, 2018, the Company issued JPY-denominated credit enhanced bonds (Series 1 JPY10,000,000,000 0.33% Bonds due 2021, Series 2 JPY20,000,000,000 0.64% Bonds due 2021 and Series 3 JPY20,000,000,000 0.64% Bonds due 2021), which was listed on the professional oriented TOKYO PRO-BOND Market of the Tokyo Stock Exchange on March 19, 2018. See Note 39 to the consolidated financial statements for the issuance of JPY bonds.

On July 10, 2018, the resolution in relation to our proposed non-public issuance of no more than 1,616,438,355 A shares and no more than 517,677,777 shares were approved by the Board of Directors. On August 30, 2018, the relevant resolution has been approved at our 2018 third extraordinary general meeting, 2018 first A shareholders class meeting and 2018 first H shareholders class meeting. We proposed to issue non-public A shares to Juneyao Airlines Co., Ltd.(“Juneyao Airlines”), Shanghai Juneyao (Group) Co., Ltd. and/or its designated controlled subsidiaries and structural reform fund. Meanwhile, we proposed to issue non-public H shares to Shanghai Juneyao Airlines Hong Kong Limited, a wholly-owned subsidiary of Juneyao Airlines. The proposed non-public issuance of A shares and H shares has been approved by the State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission (the “SASAC”) and CAAC but is subject to the approval of CSRC.

The material development of our indebtedness is set out in Note 39 to the consolidated financial statements. The capital expenditure is set out in Item 5 in this Annual Report.

The SEC also maintains a website at http://www.sec.gov that contains reports, proxy statements and other information regarding issuers that file electronically with the SEC. We maintain our own website at http://www.ceair.com.

B. Business Overview

We were one of the three largest air carriers in China in terms of several indicators including number of passengers carried, ATK and ASK in 2018 and is an important domestic airline based in and serving Shanghai, which is considered to be the international financial and shipping center of China. The primary focus of our business is the operation of civil aviation, including the provision of passenger, cargo, mail delivery, tour operations and other extended transportation services.

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We operate most of our flights through our three hubs located in eastern, northwestern and southwestern China, namely Shanghai, Xi’an and Kunming, respectively. With Shanghai as our core hub and Xi’an and Kunming as our regional hubs, we believe that we will benefit from the level of development and growth opportunities in eastern, northern and western China as a whole by providing direct services between various cities in those regions and between those regions and other major cities in China. We have steadily fostered the construction of a flight system for these core hubs by introducing new flight destinations and increasing the frequency of certain flights, thereby enhancing our transfer and connection capability in these hub markets. With the commencement of operation of Beijing Daxing International Airport in 2019, we expect that Beijing Daxing International Airport will also be one of our important hubs.

Our domestic routes contributed approximately 65.8% of our total passenger revenues in 2018. Our most heavily traveled domestic routes generally link Shanghai to the large commercial and business centers of China, such as Beijing, Guangzhou and Shenzhen. Our flight routes include all provincial capital cities in China and specifically designated cities. In 2018, we opened new routes including routes to Stockholm, London Gatwick and Dubai from Shanghai and to St. Petersburg and Madrid from Xi’an. As of December 31, 2018, we served a route network that covers 1,150 domestic and foreign destinations in 175 countries through SkyTeam, an international airlines alliance.

Our passenger traffic volume (as measured in revenue passenger-kilometers, or RPKs) increased by 10.0% from approximately 183,182 million in 2017 to approximately 201,486 million in 2018. We transferred 100% equity interest in Eastern Logistics to Eastern Airlines Industry Investment in February 2017. Our cargo and mail traffic volume (as measured in revenue freight tonne-kilometers, or RFTKs) decreased by 2.8% from approximately 2,663 million in 2017 to approximately 2,588 million in 2018 under the basis that our operating data in 2017 included our whole cargo freight data in January 2017 (“under non-comparable basis”). Our cargo and mail traffic volume (as measured in revenue freight tonne-kilometers, or RFTK) increased by 5.3% from approximately 2,458 million in 2017 to approximately 2,588 million in 2018 under the basis that our operating data in 2017 did not include our whole cargo freight data in January 2017 (“under comparable basis”). As a result, our traffic volume (as measured in RTKs) increased by 8.0% from approximately 18,856 million in 2017 to approximately 20,358 million in 2018 under the non-comparable basis and increased by 9.2% from approximately 18,651 million in 2017 to approximately 20,358 million in 2018 under the comparable basis.

Awards

We have received many awards, recognitions and accolades through the years. Fortune Magazine recognized us as one of the “Most Innovative PRC Companies” in 2011, and our “China Eastern Airlines” brand was awarded “China’s Famous Trademark” by the State Administration for Industry and Commerce in 2011. In addition, in 2012 we received various recognitions and awards, including “Golden Tripod Prize”, which was the highest award awarded at the 8th Annual Meeting of China’s Securities Market, “Golden Bauhinia” Award for “The Listed Company with Best Brand Value 2012” by China Securities, “2012 Best Mid-Cap Company and Best Managed Company in China” by Asiamoney Magazine, “Top 50 Most Valuable Chinese Brands” by WPP, a global brand communication and public relations firm, “2012 TOP 25 CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) Ranking” by Fortune China Magazine, “2012 China State-owned Listed Enterprise Social Responsibility Rankings Top 20” by Southern Weekly, “The Best Board of Directors of State-owned Listed Holding Companies of China Top 20” by various major financial media, including Moneyweek, “Healthy China – Best Employee Health & Benefit Unit” by Health Times, a major newspaper in China focusing on health and lifestyle, and Tsinghua University, “Internal Audit Leading Enterprises in terms of Risk Management and Internal Audit” by China Institute of Internal Audit, “Best 100 Employers” by zhaopin.com, a major online recruiting website in China, and “The World’s Most Improved Airline” by SKYTRAX, a United Kingdom-based aviation research organization. In 2013, we received the National 1 May Award Certificate and were honored as one of the “2013 Top Ten Companies with the Best Corporate Social Responsibility” by Fortune China Magazine, “Best Mid-cap Company” by Hong Kong Asiamoney Magazine for the second consecutive year, “Top 50 Most Valuable Chinese Brands in 2013” by WPP, a global brand communication and public relations firm, the “Golden Bauhinia Award” of the “Best Listed Company” and “Listed Company with the Best Investor’s Relations Management” by Ta Kung Pao and one of the “Best 100 Employers” by zhaopin.com. In 2014, our charity campaign “Love at China Eastern Airlines” was awarded the Gold Award at the First Chinese Young Volunteers Services Contest. The “Love at China Eastern Airlines” campaign has organized activities such as visiting welfare and nursing homes, subsidizing Hope Schools and schools for urban and rural migrant workers’ children and teaching school children with hearing and speaking impairment, running blood donation programs, and other activities for environmental protection. The campaign launched 5,179 projects with 274,979 staff and members taking participation, serving a total of 233,353 people in need. Through interaction with the community, we have established a charity brand image of “delivering love and serving the community”. In 2015, “Love at China Eastern Airlines” launched 530 projects all year round, with 26,119 staff participating, serving a total of 40,166 people.

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In 2014, we were recognized as “Top 50 Most Valuable Chinese Brands” by WPP, a global brand communication firm, as well as being awarded the “China Securities Golden Bauhinia Award” and ranked first as the “Best Listed Company Award” by Ta Kung Pao in Hong Kong for three consecutive years; and ranked among top 10 in terms of “Most Competitive Asia Airline 2014” and “Most Popular Asia Airline 2014” in the 5th World Airline Competitiveness Rankings.

In 2015, we were bestowed a number of awards, such as “Best China Airline” at the 8th TTG (Asia Media) China Travel Awards, “China Securities Golden Bauhinia Award – Listed Company with the Most Valuable Brand” for four consecutive years and “Best Innovative Listed Company” granted by Hong Kong Ta Kung Pao, as well as “2014-2015 Most Respectable Chinese Enterprise” and “2015 Chinese Best Business Model Innovation Award” by the Economic Observer and 21st Century Business Herald, respectively.

In 2016, we successively won the 9th TTG China Tourism Awards “Best China Airlines”, and were awarded “2016 Asian Tourism Red Coral Award – Most Popular Airline Brand”, “Asia Pacific 2016 Excellence Aviation Award” and “International Carbon Gold Award – Social Citizenship Award” by the 2016 Asian Tourism Industry Annual Conference, the CAPA Communication Center and the World Environmental Protection (Economy and Environment) Conference respectively.

In 2017, we were awarded the “International Carbon-Value Award – Social Citizen Award” by the World Economic and Environmental Conference and were rated as a “Targeted Poverty Alleviation Demonstration Enterprise” by the World Charity Forum. We were granted “China Securities Golden Bauhinia Award” for six consecutive years, recognized as one of the “Top 30 Most Valuable Chinese Brand” by Wire & Plastic Products Group (WPP), the world’s largest brand communication group. We were also awarded as one of the “World’s 500 Most Valuable Brands” by the famous brand appraisal organization Brand Finance, “Gold Ranking” accredited by IATA, and awards such as “Feike Travel Awards”, “Best Employer Award in Aviation Industry”, “The Most Admired Company in China”, “Top 10 Influencing Airlines”, “Top 50 Chinese Brand with Overseas Social Influence” and “The Best Performing Airline” by various authoritative institutions.

In 2018, we were awarded the “China Securities Golden Bauhinia Award” for the seventh consecutive year by Hong Kong Takungpao and Wenhui media group, Beijing Listed Company Association, the Hong Kong Chinese Enterprises Association, the Hong Kong Chinese Financial Association, the Hong Kong Chinese Securities Association, other industry organizations and professional institutions, awarded as one of the “World’s 500 Most Valuable Brands” by Brand Finance, an international brand appraisal organization, for the third consecutive year and awarded as the “Best China Airline” in the “TTG China Travel Awards” organized by Travel Trade Guide China (TTG China) for the fourth consecutive year. In addition, we were recognized as one of the “Top 50 Most Valuable Chinese Brands” by Wire & Plastic Products Group (WPP), the world’s largest brand communication group in 2018. We were also recognized as “The Best Airline” by Travelport, and as “The Most Favored Domestic Business First-class” by Chinese high net worth individuals conducted by the Hurun Research Institute in 2018.

Our Operations by Activity

The following table sets forth our traffic revenues by activity for each of the years ended December 31, 2016, 2017 and 2018:

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Passenger Operations

The following table sets forth our certain passenger operating statistics by route for each of the years ended December 31, 2016, 2017 and 2018:

In 2016, we continued to update and optimize our fleet structure, introducing new aircrafts continually and retiring outdated model aircrafts. As of the end of 2016, our average flight age was 5.4 years. We mainly introduce long – haul B777 series aircrafts in trans-Pacific routes; mid-to-long-haul A330 series aircrafts in China-Europe routes, China-Australia and domestic business routes; A320 series and B737 series aircrafts in domestic and surrounding countries and regions routes, which we believe enhances the matching level between fleet models and routes, transportation capacities and relevant markets. In 2016, we continued to deepen and expand our cooperation with external partners. Relying on the SkyTeam Alliance platform, we continued to enhance our cooperation with member airlines in the SkyTeam Alliance. In collaboration with Delta Air Lines, based on pre-existing trans-Pacific routes and destinations in the PRC and the USA, we further extended our network of cooperative routes to Canada, Mexico, Southeast Asian and South American regions, achieving a total of 252 codeshare routes. In collaboration with Air France-KLM Group (“Air France-KLM”), based on our jointly operated routes and code-share coverage, we increased our joint marketing efforts to corporate customers in the French market.

In 2016, we proactively promoted the establishment of transportation hubs with the opening of various international routes for long-haul flights and an enhanced coverage of our transportation network. With Shanghai as the core hub, we added six international routes for long-haul flights to our network, connecting Shanghai and Prague, Amsterdam, Madrid, St. Petersburg, Chicago and Brisbane, respectively. We provided more frequent flight services on routes connecting Shanghai and New York City, Los Angeles, Sydney and Melbourne. We added routes connecting Kunming and Sydney, Qingdao and San Francisco, Nanjing and Vancouver and Hangzhou and Sydney. Last, we stabilized the allocation of our flight capacities for Japan, Korea and Southeast Asia markets. As a result of these enhanced transit connection and expanded transit routes structures, in 2016, we experienced approximately 26.8%, 63.8% and 43.1% year-on-year growth in passenger flight capacity for Europe, North America and Australia markets, respectively; and our inter-airline transit volume and revenue grew by 24.2% and 21.4%, respectively. As of the end of 2016, by connecting to the route networks of other SkyTeam member airlines, our flights had access to 1,062 destinations in 177 countries.

In 2016, we put in available seat – kilometers (ASK) of approximately 206,249.27 million passenger-kilometers, representing an increase of approximately 13.5% from 2015. Number of passengers carried in 2016 was approximately 101.74 million, representing an increase of approximately 8.5% from 2015. Passenger load factor in 2016 was approximately 81.2%, representing an increase of approximately 0.7% from 2015. Passenger revenue in 2016 amounted to approximately RMB83,577 million, representing an increase of approximately 6.4% from 2015.

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In 2016, we further strengthened our Shanghai core hub and Xi’an and Kunming regional hubs. The aggregated number of transits connecting “origin to destination” of the three hubs reached 6,075, an increase of 13.8% as compared to 2015. In respect of the number of transits connecting “origin to destination”, Pudong reached 4,083, an increase of 17.9% as compared to 2015, Kunming reached 1,384, an increase of 9.1% as compared to 2015, and Xi’an reached 608, which was similar to 2015. The three hubs transported approximately 4.51 million passengers, an increase of 27.0% as compared to 2015. Among them, our Shanghai hub transported approximately 2.99 million passengers, an increase of 27.2% as compared to 2015, comprising 25.6% of transit flights; our Kunming hub transported approximately 1.18 million passengers, an increase of 18.7% as compared with 2015, comprising 16.1% of transit flights; and Xi’an hub transported approximately 340,000 passengers, an increase of 64.7% as compared to 2015, comprising of 6.9% transit flights.

In 2017, in view of a relatively complicated external environment and intensifying competition, we embrace challenges by seizing new development opportunities such as the “One Belt One Road” initiative, free trade port in Shanghai, the construction of the new airport in Beijing and the full access to electronic devices on aircraft.

According to the “Approval of the feasibility study report of the construction of new airport in Beijing” by the NDRC and the “Notice regarding the matters of the construction of airline base project at the new airport in Beijing” by CAAC, the new airport in Beijing is located along the north bank of Yongding River, and between Yu Fa Town and Li Xian Town, Daxing District, Beijing and Guangyang District, Lang Fang, Hebei. Being the major base airline of the new airport in Beijing, we will undertake base construction according to the target of bearing 40% of the traffic flow of the new airport in Beijing. In February 2017, we have gained the approval from the NDRC in regards of the base project at the new airport in Beijing. After the commencement of operation of the new airport in Beijing in 2019, we will grasp the developmental opportunities derived from the coordinated development of Beijing, Tianjin and Hebei, especially the construction of Xiong’an New District by the State, to actively strive for routes and time slot resources. Leveraging on the SkyTeam Airline Alliance platform, we will construct international coverage of our route networks to provide convenient, highly efficient and quality outbound traveling services for travelers.

In 2017, we focused on the operation and development of the passenger transportation business. We continued to optimize e-commerce platform functions. For e-commerce, we expedited the construction of our in-flight internet connection platform. The scale of the aircraft fleet with Wi-Fi installed ranked at the top nationwide and we took the lead in allowing the use of portable electronic devices on flight in the PRC. As at the end of 2017, internet access has become available in all our 74 wide-body aircraft with the coverage of major business routes in Europe, the U.S., Australia and China. “Internet Access In the Air” enhanced customers’ in-flight experience. We also upgraded and improved our 11 overseas websites, and a total of 12 updates were made to our mobile application. Furthermore, we introduced new service products such as pre-flight ordering of in-flight meals via mobile application, with an aim to optimize service experiences of customers. We strengthened the shopping mall points operations by introducing diversified point redemption products such as oversized baggage redemption and continued to increase the revenue from the sales of non-aviation points, where the revenue from the sales of non-aviation points increased by 149% compared to 2016.

In 2017, we continued to optimized our fleet structure. We introduced a total of 73 aircraft of major models and a total of 18 aircraft retired. With the introduction of B737-8MAX series aircraft and the gradual retirement of B767 series aircraft, our fleet structure has been made younger. In 2017, we continued to deepen and expand our cooperation with external partners. We deepened the comprehensive partnership with Delta by further expanding the code-share coverage and jointly deepened marketing cooperation by expanding channels and markets. We also strengthened our business partnership with AFK by further expanding our code-share coverage with it. Capitalized on the cooperation platform of SkyTeam Airline Alliance, we have newly launched code-share cooperation with Air Europa Líneas Aéreas, S.A.U. (IATA code: UX) from Spain and Czech Airlines j.s.c. (IATA code: OK). In addition, we attached importance to and continued to strengthen the cooperation with airlines which are not members of SkyTeam Airline Alliance. In collaborating with Qantas Airways Limited (IATA code: QF), we launched enhanced cooperation in joint operation and sales, and points earning and redeeming of frequent flyer program. We commenced to launch code-sharing cooperation with Jet Airways (India) Ltd. (IATA code: 9W) and Air Mauritius Limited (IATA code: MK), and discussion on bilateral cooperation of frequent flyers with WestJet Airlines Ltd. (IATA code: WS).

In 2017, we strengthened the research on the route network planning of Beijing’s new hub, and actively promoted the construction project of our base in the new airport in Beijing. We conducted seasonal improvements and adjustments on transportation capacity, and introduced Beijing-Hangzhou-Sydney, Kunming-Sydney and Wuhan-Sydney routes in accordance with the characteristics of European, American and Australian markets in recent years. In view of the changing demand for the Korean market, we reduced transportation capacity and changed to use smaller aircraft. We also introduced routes such as Shanghai-Jakarta, Shanghai-Cebu, Xi’an-Prague and Shenzhen-Krabi so as to be in line with the State’s “One Belt One Road” initiative. As at the end of 2017, with the matching route networks with the SkyTeam Airline Alliance members, our route networks reached 177 countries and 1,074 destinations.

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In 2017, we put in available seat – kilometers (ASK) of approximately 225,996 million passenger-kilometers, representing an increase of approximately 9.6% from 2016. Number of passengers carried in 2017 was approximately 111 million, representing an increase of approximately 8.9% from 2016. Passenger load factor in 2017 was approximately 81.1%, representing a decrease of approximately 0.17 percentage point from 2016. Passenger revenue in 2017 amounted to approximately RMB91,564 million, representing an increase of approximately 9.6% from 2016.

In 2017, we further strengthened our Shanghai core hub and Xi’an and Kunming regional hubs. The aggregated number of transits connecting “origin to destination” of the three hubs reached 6,489, an increase of 6.8% as compared to 2016. In respect of the number of transits connecting “origin to destination”, Pudong reached 4,225, an increase of 3.5% as compared to 2016, Kunming reached 1,608, an increase of 16.2% as compared to 2016, and Xi’an reached 656, an increase of 7.9% as compared to 2016. The three hubs transported approximately 4.98 million passengers, an increase of approximately 10.5% as compared to 2016. Among them, our Shanghai hub transported approximately 3.02 million passengers, an increase of approximately 1.2% as compared to 2016, comprising 24.3% of transit flights; our Kunming hub transported approximately 1.45 million passengers, an increase of approximately 22.7% as compared with 2016, comprising 17.7% of transit flights; and Xi’an hub transported approximately 0.51 million passengers, an increase of approximately 50.3% as compared to 2016, comprising of 8.6% transit flights.

In 2018, our fleet size, number of flights and number of users with “in-flight internet connection” ranked the first in China. We actively sought to establish an in-flight internet joint venture with telecom operators to reinforce and enhance our first-mover advantage in the in-flight internet connection business. We continuously optimized the customers’ experience on our official website and mobile application, added and optimized important functions such as pre-flight ordering of in-flight meals and publication of information regarding unusual flights. We have vigorously promoted the establishment of overseas e-commerce platform, launched 14 new overseas websites and introduced value-added products such as oversized baggage check-in, VIP lounges and online seat selection. We strengthened the operation of points mall, enriched point redemption products, and optimized the points payment function.

In 2018, we introduced a total of 67 aircraft of major models and a total of 14 aircraft retired. With the introduction of new aircraft, such as A350-900, B787-9 and A320NEO, and the retirement of B767 aircraft, our fleet age has been made younger. As of December 31, 2018, we operated a fleet of 692 aircraft, which included 680 passenger aircraft and 12 business aircraft held under trust. We continuously intensified our cooperation with strategic partners to enrich the contents for cooperation and enhance the quality of cooperation. Delta Air Lines and we continued to intensify bilateral cooperation in four aspects, namely, revenue from cooperation (including mutual sales revenue and revenue from SPA (special allocation agreements)), experience of travelers, communication between personnel and cooperation for expansion and development. We entered into a new cooperation agreement with Air France-KLM, pursuant to which, additional routes such as Kunming-Paris and Wuhan-Paris were operated jointly commencing from January 1, 2019. We worked with Delta Air Lines and Air France-KLM to carry out the plan for network optimization connection, as well as ground service and procedure standards for Beijing Daxing International Airport. By entering into a comprehensive and upgraded business agreement with Qantas Airways Limited, we intensified the business partnership of both parties based on the original joint partnership. We has signed a joint cooperation agreement with Japan Airlines Co., Ltd. (“Japan Airlines”), and both parties are performing the relevant anti-monopoly legal procedures of China and Japan.

In 2018, our market share (in terms of passenger throughput) in hubs such as Shanghai, Beijing and Kunming increased by 0.6, 0.4 and 0.8 percentage point, respectively, while our market share in Xi’an remained the same year-on-year. Through the optimization of transit connection, the effect of hub network has gradually appeared. In respect of the number of transits connecting “origin to destination”, Pudong reached 4,614, representing an increase of 9.2% as compared to 2017; Kunming reached 1,793, representing an increase of 11.5% as compared to 2017; Xi’an reached 739, representing an increase of 12.7% as compared to 2017; and Beijing reached 751, representing an increase of 1.0% as compared to 2017.

In 2018, we put in available seat – kilometers (ASK) of approximately 244,841 million passenger-kilometers, representing an increase of approximately 8.3% from 2017. Number of passengers carried in 2018 was approximately 121 million, representing an increase of approximately 9.4% from 2017. Passenger load factor in 2018 was approximately 82.3%, representing an increase of approximately 1.2 percentage points from 2017. Passenger revenue in 2018 amounted to approximately RMB104,309 million, representing an increase of approximately 13.9% from 2017.

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Cargo and Mail Operations

The following table sets forth certain of our cargo and mail operations statistics by route for each of the years ended December 31, 2016, 2017 and 2018:

Notes:

On November 29, 2016, we entered into an equity transfer agreement with Eastern Airlines Industry Investment, in relation to the transfer of 100% equity interests in Eastern Logistics held by us to Eastern Airlines Industry Investment. China Cargo Airlines, a non-wholly subsidiary of Eastern Logistics, operated a total of nine freighters then. On February 8, 2017, we completed the transfer of 100% equity interest in Eastern Logistics to Eastern Airlines Industry Investment and the nine freighters operated by China Cargo Airlines ceased to be included in our fleet. After completion of the disposal, we will focus on air passenger transportation business and continue to improve our operating and management ability. Also, on November 29, 2016, we and Eastern Logistics entered into the freight logistics daily connected transactions framework agreement. See “ Item 7. Major Shareholders and Related Party Transactions - Related Party Transactions - Related Business Transactions - Eastern Logistics, an indirectly owned subsidiary of CEA Holding - Freight Logistics Daily Connected Transactions Framework Agreement with Eastern Logistics”.

On January 1, 2017, to avoid the competition between the bellyhold space business operated by us and the all-cargo aircraft freight business operated by China Cargo Airlines, we entered into the bellyhold space management agreement with China Cargo Airlines (“Bellyhold Space Management Agreement”) to entrust China Cargo Airlines for the operation of the bellyhold space business for a term of three years, which commenced on January 1, 2017. On March 1, 2018, we entered into contractual operation agreement and operation cost agreement with China Cargo Airlines, pursuant to which, China Cargo Airlines (as contractor) will operate the bellyhold space business and reimburse the contractual fee to us, and we will reimburse the operation cost of the bellyhold space business to China Cargo Airlines. The Bellyhold Space Management Agreement has been superseded by the contractual operation agreement dated March 1, 2018 entered into between the Company and China Cargo Airlines since March 31, 2018.

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Our Operations by Geographical Area

Our revenues (net of business tax) by geographical area are analyzed based on the following criteria:

The following table sets forth our revenues by geographical area for each of the three years ended December 31, 2018:

Regulation

The PRC Civil Aviation Law provides the framework for regulation of many important aspects of civil aviation activities in China, including:

The Chinese airline industry is also subject to a high degree of regulation by the CAAC. Regulations issued or implemented by the CAAC encompass virtually every aspect of airline operations, including route allocation, domestic airfare, licensing of pilots, operational safety standards, aircraft acquisition, aircraft airworthiness certification, fuel prices, standards for aircraft maintenance and air traffic control and standards for airport operations. Although the PRC airlines operate under the supervision and regulation of the CAAC, they are accorded a significant degree of operational autonomy. These areas of operational autonomy include:

Although we have generally been allocated adequate routes in the past to accommodate our expansion plans and other changes in our operations, those routes are subject to allocation and re-allocation in response to changes in governmental policies or otherwise at the discretion of the CAAC. Consequently, we cannot assure you that our route structure will be adequate to satisfy our expansion plans.

The CAAC has established regulatory policies intended to promote controlled growth of the Chinese airline industry. We believe those policies will be beneficial to the development of and prospects for the Chinese airline industry as a whole. Nevertheless, those regulatory policies could limit our flexibility to respond to changes in market conditions, competition or our cost structure. Moreover, while we generally benefits from regulatory policies that are beneficial to the airline industry in China as a whole, the implementation of specific regulatory policies may from time to time materially and adversely affect our business operations.

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Because we provide services on international routes, we are also subject to a variety of bilateral civil air transport agreements between China and other countries. In addition, China is a contracting state as well as a permanent member of the International Civil Aviation Organization, an agency of the United Nations established in 1947 to assist in the planning and development of the international air transportation. The International Civil Aviation Organization establishes technical standards for the international airline industry. China is also a party to a number of other international aviation conventions. Our business operations are also subject to these international aviation conventions, as well as certain foreign country aviation regulations and local aviation laws with respect to route allocation, landing rights and related flight operation regulation.

Domestic Route Rights

Chinese airlines must obtain from the CAAC the right to carry passengers or cargo on any domestic route. The CAAC’s policy on domestic route rights is to assign routes to the airline or airlines suitable for a particular route. The CAAC will take into account whether an applicant for a route is based at the point of origin or termination of a particular route. This policy benefits airlines, such as us, that have a hub located at each of the active air traffic centers in China. The CAAC also considers other factors that will make a particular airline suitable for an additional route, including the applicant’s safety record, previous on-time performance and level of service and availability of aircraft and pilots. The CAAC will consider the market conditions applicable to any given route before such route is allocated to one or more airlines. Generally, the CAAC will permit additional airlines to service a route that is already being serviced only when there is strong demand for a particular route relative to the available supply. The CAAC’s current general policy is to require the passenger load factor of one or two airlines on a particular route to reach a certain level before another carrier is permitted to commence operations on such route.

Regional Route Rights

Hong Kong routes and the corresponding landing rights were formerly derived from the Sino-British air services agreement. In February 2000, the PRC government, acting through the CAAC, and Hong Kong signed the Air Transportation Arrangement between mainland China and Hong Kong. The Air Transportation Arrangement provides for equal opportunity for airlines based in Hong Kong and mainland China. Competition from airlines based in Hong Kong increased after the execution of the Air Transportation Arrangement. The CAAC normally will not allocate an international route or a Hong Kong route to more than one domestic airline unless certain criteria, including minimum load factors on existing flights, are met. There is more than one Chinese airline company on certain of our Hong Kong routes.

The CAAC and the Economic Development and Labor Bureau of Hong Kong entered into an agreement in 2007 to further expand the Air Transportation Arrangement. This agreement increases the routes between Hong Kong and mainland China to expand coverage to most major cities in mainland China. The capacity limits for passenger and/or cargo services on most routes will also be gradually lifted. Beginning in 2007, each side designated three airline companies to operate passenger and/or cargo flights and another airline company to operate all-cargo flights on the majority of the routes between Hong Kong and mainland China. Since then, the two sides signed memorandums to further expand the Air Transportation Arrangement several times.

On December 15, 2008, mainland China and Taiwan commenced direct air and sea transport and postal services, ending a nearly six-decade ban on regular links between the two sides since 1949. Under a historic agreement signed by the governments of mainland China and Taiwan in early November 2008, the new air links expanded from weekend charters to a daily service, with the two sides operating a total of 108 flights per week in 2008 and approximately 270 and 370 regular direct flights per week in 2009 and 2010, respectively. Mainland China and Taiwan agreed to increase flight destinations for air links between the two sides in mainland China to 33 airports in various PRC cities in 2010, while flight destinations in Taiwan continue to include eight airports in various cities in Taiwan. At the end of 2012, the two sides agreed to increase the total number of flights to 616 per week and to increase the total number of destination airports in mainland China and Taiwan to 64. The two sides also previously agreed to launch chartered cargo flights between two terminals in mainland China, namely, Shanghai Pudong and Guangzhou airports, and two terminals in Taiwan, namely, Taoyuan and Kaohsiung airports. On August 12, 2013, the two sides agreed to increase the total number of flights to 670 per week and add three terminals of chartered cargo flights in mainland China, namely, Tianjin, Zhengzhou and Ningbo airports. At the end of 2014, mainland China and Taiwan agreed to increase the total number of flights to 924 per week and to increase the total number of destination airports in mainland China to 65. In April 2015, the fifth batch of Mainland pilot cities was opened for individual tour to Taiwan, including Haikou, Hohhot, Lanzhou, Yinchuan, Changzhou, Zhoushan, Huizhou, Weihai, Longyan, Guilin and Xuzhou, and the number of Mainland cities with free line tour to Taiwan has reached 47.

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International Route Rights

International route rights, along with the corresponding landing rights, are derived from air services agreements negotiated between the PRC government, acting through the CAAC, and the government of the relevant foreign country. Each government grants to the other the right to designate one or more domestic airlines to operate scheduled services between certain points within each country. The CAAC awards the relevant route to an airline based on various criteria, including:

Although hub location is an important criterion, an airline may be awarded a route that does not originate from an airport where it has a hub. The route rights awarded do not have a fixed expiry date and can be terminated at the discretion of the CAAC.

Airfare Pricing Policy

The PRC Civil Aviation Law provides that airfares for domestic routes are determined jointly by the CAAC and the agency of the State Council responsible for price control, primarily based upon average airline operating costs and market conditions.

The CAAC and the NDRC jointly publish pricing guidelines from time to time, which set forth the basic airfare levels and permitted ranges. Pursuant to the current pricing guidelines, the basic airfares for most domestic routes are the published airfares implemented by Chinese airlines immediately prior to the approval of the Pricing Reform Plan. Except for certain domestic routes, the actual airfare set by each Chinese airline for its domestic routes cannot be 25% than the basic airfare. Domestic routes that are not subject to the deviation range restrictions include short-haul routes between cities in the same province or autonomous region, or between a municipality and adjacent provinces, autonomous regions or another municipality. Certain tourist routes and routes served by only one Chinese airline are not subject to the bottom range restriction. The CAAC and the NDRC will announce the routes that are not subject to the deviation range restrictions through the airfare information system known as Airtis.net. Chinese airlines may apply to the CAAC and the NDRC for exemption from the bottom range restriction for a particular route. Chinese airlines are also required to file the actual airfare they set for their domestic routes within the ranges through Airtis.net 30 days prior to its implementation.

The CAAC and the NDRC will regularly review the average operating costs of Chinese airlines, and may adjust the basic airfares for particular domestic routes that, in their view, are not at a reasonable level. The CAAC and NDRC jointly issued a notice on April 13, 2010, effective on June 1, 2010, pursuant to which airlines may set first-class and business-class airfares in accordance with market prices, subject to relevant PRC laws. Such pricing must be filed 30 days before effectiveness with the CAAC and NDRC. Efforts by the Chinese regulators to promote a sale market with fair competition will also help provide a favorable environment for our business growth.

At the end of 2014, the CAAC and the NDRC jointly promulgated The Notice on Further Improving the Problems About Civil Aviation Domestic Air Transport Price Policy, which lifted the control over the civil domestic airlines cargo freight rate and changed the prices of specific airlines from government-oriented pricing to market-oriented pricing.

At the end of 2015, the CAAC announced the Implementation Opinion on the Reform of Mechanism of Prices and Service Fee in Civil Aviation Transport, which sets the goal to generally lift the control over the prices and service fee in competitive part of civil aviation transport by 2017, and to generally set up a basically optimized, scientific, standardized, transparent and market-oriented pricing regulatory system by 2020.

In October 2016, the CAAC and the NDRC jointly promulgated the Circular on the Further Reform of Passenger Transport Price Policy in Civil Aviation Domestic Air Transport, which loosened the control over the civil domestic airlines passenger transportation and changed the prices from government-oriented pricing to market-oriented pricing. According to the circular, the price of routes under 800km or routes above 800km that are in competition with high-speed rails for passenger transportation can be determined independently.

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At the end of 2017, the CAAC and the NDRC jointly promulgated the Notice on Further Improving the Problems about Passenger Transport Price Policy in Civil Aviation Domestic Air Transport, given greater freedom to set fares on more domestic routes.

On April 13, 2018, the CAAC issued the Notice on the Issuance of Domestic Route Directory with Market-adjusted Prices showing a total of 1,030 domestic routes implementing market adjusted ticket prices.

Under the PRC Civil Aviation Law, maximum airfares on regional and international routes are set in accordance with the terms of the air services agreements pursuant to which these routes are operated. In the absence of an air services agreement, airfares are set by the airlines themselves or by the CAAC with reference to comparable market prices, taking into account the international airfare standards established through the coordination of the International Air Transport Association, which organizes periodic air traffic conferences for coordinating international airfares. Discounts are permitted on regional and international routes. For the airline industry in China as a whole, the airfare per kilometer is substantially higher for regional and international routes than that for domestic routes.

Acquisition of Aircraft and Spare Parts

We are permitted to import aircraft, aircraft spare parts and other equipment for our own use from manufacturers through EAIEC, which is 55% owned by CEA Holding and 45% owned by our Company. This gives us a sale market with fair competition flexibility with our inventory management by allowing us to maintain a relatively lower overall inventory level of aircraft parts and equipment than we otherwise would have to maintain. We are still required to obtain approval from the NDRC and may be subject to appraisal of the relevant competent authorities for any import of aircraft. We generally pay a commission to EAIEC in connection with these imports.

Domestic Fuel Supply and Pricing

The Civil Aviation Oil Supply Company, or the CAOSC, which is supervised by the SASAC, is currently the dominant civil aviation fuel supply company in China. We currently purchase a significant portion of our domestic fuel supply from CAOSC. The PRC government determines the fuel price at which the CAOSC acquires fuel from domestic suppliers and the CAAC issues a guidance price. The retail price at which the CAOSC resells fuel to airline customers is set within a specified range based on this guidance price.

In 2005, the NDRC, the CAAC and the China Air Transport Association jointly launched the linkage mechanism for aviation fuel prices and transportation prices by airline companies. The fuel surcharge standards for domestic passenger routes were adjusted according to a series of notices regarding the adjustments of passenger fuel surcharges on domestic routes issued by the NDRC and the CAAC from 2006 to 2008. In the second half of 2008, international crude oil prices decreased significantly, leading the NDRC and the CAAC to release an announcement on January 14, 2009 to suspend fuel surcharges for domestic passenger routes with effect from January 15, 2009. A Notice Concerning the Relevant Issues on Establishment Linkage Mechanism for Passenger Fuel Surcharges on Domestic Routes and the Price of Domestic Aviation Coal Oil Fuel by NDRC and CAAC, with effect from November 14, 2009, provided that fuel surcharges shall be charged by the airlines, at the airline’s discretion, but within certain limits as set forth in the notice. On March 31, 2010, the NDRC and CAAC issued the Notice Regarding the Publication of Passenger Fuel Surcharges Rate on Domestic Routes, which reduced the standard fuel surcharge by 3.1% for domestic routes. In addition, on March 31, 2011, the NDRC and CAAC issued another similar notice, which further adjusted the standard fuel surcharge downwards. From August 1, 2011, according to the Announcement on the Linking Mechanism for Fuel Surcharges and Aviation Coal Oil Fuel, issued by the NDRC and CAAC, the rate of domestic route fuel surcharges will be adjusted each month if the difference in consolidated purchase costs for domestic aviation coal oil fuel exceeds RMB250 per ton.

On March 24, 2015, the CAAC and the NDRC jointly promulgated the Notice on Adjustment of the Linking Mechanism for Fuel Surcharges and Aviation Coal Oil Fuel in Passenger Transport of Domestic Airlines, in which they decided to increase the base price of aviation coal oil fuel form RMB4,140 per ton to RMB5,000 per ton.

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Safety

The CAAC has made the continued improvement of air traffic safety in China a high priority. The CAAC is responsible for the establishment of operational safety, maintenance and training standards for all Chinese airlines, which have been formulated based on international standards. Each Chinese airline is required to provide flight safety reports to the CAAC, including reports of flight incidents or accidents involving its aircraft, which occurred during the relevant reporting period and other safety related problems. The CAAC conducts safety inspections on each airline periodically.

The CAAC oversees the training of most Chinese airline pilots through its operation of the pilot training college. The CAAC implements a unified pilot certification process applicable to all Chinese airline pilots and is responsible for the issuance, renewal, suspension and cancellation of pilot licenses. Each pilot is required to pass the CAAC-administered examinations before obtaining a pilot license and is subject to an annual examination in order to have such certification renewed.

All aircraft operated by Chinese airlines, other than a limited number of leased aircraft registered in foreign countries, are required to be registered with the CAAC. All of our aircraft are registered with the CAAC. All aircraft operated by Chinese airlines must have a valid certificate of airworthiness issued and annually renewed by the CAAC. In addition, maintenance permits are issued to a Chinese airline only after the maintenance capabilities of that Chinese airline have been examined and assessed by the CAAC. These maintenance permits are renewed annually. All aircraft operated by Chinese airlines may be maintained and repaired only by CAAC certified maintenance facilities, whether located within or outside China. Aircraft maintenance personnel must be certified by the CAAC before assuming aircraft maintenance posts.

In early 2013, the CAAC amended the original Civil Aviation Incidents Standards and published the new Civil Aviation Incidents Standards which became effective as of March 1, 2013. The CAAC amended the Management Rules on Safety Information of Civil Aviation which became effective on April 4, 2016 and required that related Chinese airlines should arrange a certain number of specialists that satisfied with special requirements to take charge of the management of safety information. The CAAC promulgated the new Administrative Provisions on Emergencies of China’s Civil Aviation which became effective from April 17, 2016 and formulated the duties and responsibilities of Chinese airlines on the prevention and emergency preparedness, prediction and early warning, emergency disposal, handling and other emergency work of civil aviation. We will ensure our relevant employees implement the new standards, which will enable us to enhance our daily operations. For more information on the safety standards and measures implemented by us, see “– Maintenance and Safety – Safety.” In 2016, the CAAC promulgated the new Administrative Provisions on Civil Aviation Safety Information. As a result, we formulated new internal regulations on aviation safety information to strengthen the safety of our information system.

Security

The CAAC establishes and oversees the implementation of security standards and regulations based on the PRC laws and standards established by international civil aviation organizations. Each airline is required to submit to the CAAC an aviation security handbook describing specific security procedures established by the airline for the day-to-day operations and security training for staff. Such security procedures must be formulated based on the relevant CAAC regulations. Chinese airlines that operate international routes must also adopt security measures in accordance with the requirements of the relevant international agreements and applicable local laws. We believe that we comply with all applicable security regulations.

Environmental Regulation

We are subject to a number of environmental laws and regulations issued by regulatory authorities in China including the Environment Protection Law of the PRC, the Prevention and Control of Noise Pollution Law of the PRC, the Environmental Protection Tax Law of the PRC, Implementing Regulations of Environmental Protection Tax Law of the PRC, Notice on Developing Carbon Reporting and Verification and Emissions Monitoring Plan of 2018, the Notice on Printing and Distributing the List of Quota Management Units of Shanghai Carbon Emission Trading (2018 Edition). We believe that we comply with all applicable noise and environmental regulations in material aspects.

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Chinese Airport Policy

Prior to September 2003, all civilian airports in China were operated directly by the CAAC or by provincial or municipal governments. In September 2003, as part of the restructuring of the aviation industry in China, the CAAC transferred 93 civilian airports to provincial or municipal governments. The CAAC retained the authority to determine the take-off and landing charges, as well as charges on airlines for the use of airports and airport services. Prior to 2004, Chinese airlines were generally required to collect from their passengers on behalf of the CAAC a levy for contribution to the civil aviation infrastructure fund, which was used for improving China’s civilian airport facilities. Our revenue for the previous years is shown net of this levy. In 2003, the levy was 5% of domestic airfares and 2% of international airfares. The levy was waived by the CAAC from May 1, 2003 to December 31, 2003. With effect from September 2004, the civil aviation infrastructure levies, now paid to the Ministry of Finance of the PRC (“MOF”), have been reflected in airfares of Chinese airlines rather than collected as a separate levy.

On December 28, 2007, the CAAC and the NDRC released the Implementing Scheme for the Civil Aviation Airport Charges Reform Implementation Plan, which was implemented on March 1, 2008. This new plan divides airport charges into three parts: charges related to airline businesses; charges related to important non-airline items; and other non-airline charges. The charges related to airline businesses and important non-airline items must follow the national guided prices, in which the standard prices are rarely increased, while reduced rates can be negotiated between the airport or the service provider and the users. The plan grants us the right to negotiate with airports on the airport charges. On January 23, 2017, CAAC promulgated the Notice of Distributing the Adjustment Plan for Charging Standards for Civil Airport, adjusting the general aviation fee policy and the preferential policy for passenger service fees, including but not limited to the categories, meanings, management methods, benchmark prices and floating ranges of several airport charges and take-off and landing fees.

The civil aviation infrastructure levy was paid to the MOF and refunded again from July 1, 2008 to June 30, 2009, according to one of the ten measures announced by the CAAC in December 2008 in response to the global economic downturn. The refunded levy for China’s aviation industry amounted to approximately RMB4,000 million in total. The ten measures also include measures to enhance safety, reduce taxes, invest in infrastructure and optimize the airspace and air routes.

Limitation on Foreign Ownership

The CAAC’s present policies limit foreign ownership in Chinese airlines. Under these limits, non-Chinese residents and Hong Kong, Macau or Taiwan residents cannot hold a majority of our total outstanding shares individually or together. For PRC air transportation companies, pursuant to the new Catalog of Industries for Guiding Foreign Investment, that was jointly promulgated by the NDRC and MOC on June 28, 2018 and came into effect on July 28, 2018, Chinese investors should be the controlling shareholders of a PRC public air transportation company and the total shares held by foreign investment enterprises and its associated enterprises are not permitted to exceed 25% of the total shares of a PRC public air transportation company.

Domestic Investment

According to the Regulations on Domestic Investment in Civil Aviation Industry issued by the Ministry of Transport of PRC and effected on January 19, 2018, public air transport companies that require special management for domestic investment can keep a relative state-owned holding in its equity structure. The state-owned shares ratio requirement of major civil transport airports is loosened. Moreover, investment restrictions among various entities in the civil aviation industry are further liberalized.

Competition

Domestic

We compete against our domestic competitors primarily based on safety, quality of service and frequency of scheduled flights. With the combination of our dominant position in Shanghai, our route network and our continued commitment to safety and service quality, we believe that we are well-positioned to compete against our domestic competitors in the growing airline industry in China. However, domestic competition from other Chinese airlines has been increasing recently as our competitors have increased capacity and expanded operations by adding new routes or additional flights to existing routes and acquiring other airlines. In addition, we have faced intense competition from entrants to our domestic markets as new investments into China’s civil aviation industry have been made following the CAAC’s relaxation of certain private-sector investment rules in July 2005. In December 2008, the CAAC announced ten measures to protect and encourage the domestic aviation industry, one of which provides that no new Chinese airlines will be licensed to incorporate and operate aviation businesses before 2010. In October 2010, the CAAC announced that the suspension of approvals for new Chinese airlines companies would continue for an indefinite period. However, if the restriction is lifted in the future, we expect that competition from other Chinese airlines on our routes will further intensify.

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There are currently more than 50 Chinese airlines in mainland China, and we compete with many of them on various domestic routes. All of these airlines operate under the regulatory supervision of the CAAC. Our Company, Air China Limited, or Air China, which is based in Beijing and listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange and the London Stock Exchange, and China Southern Airlines Company Limited, or China Southern, which is based in Guangzhou and listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange and the New York Stock Exchange, are the three leading air carriers in China.

Each of the domestic airlines competes against other airlines operating the same routes or flying indirect routes to the same destinations. Our principal competitors in the domestic market are China Southern and Air China, which also provide transportation services on some of our routes, principally routes originating from the major air transportation hubs in China, such as Shanghai, Guangzhou and Beijing. Some of these routes are among our most heavily traveled routes. Since most of the major domestic airlines operate routes from their respective hubs to Shanghai, we also compete against virtually all of the major domestic airlines on these routes. In addition, we are facing increasing competition from certain low-cost carriers, such as Spring Airlines, in the domestic market. Spring Airlines competes with us, as it operates daily domestic routes to certain destinations such as Harbin, Shenyang, Guangzhou, Xiamen, Sanya, Kunming and Chongqing, which are covered in our domestic routes. The “Twelfth Five-Year Plan” for civil aviation industry in China encourages low-cost airlines to enter into major logistics market gradually. In February 2014, CAAC issued Guidance on Facilitating Low-cost Aviation Development which aims at supporting the development of domestic low-cost airlines. This will further intensify the competition in domestic aviation market. However, we believe we are well-positioned to compete against domestic low-cost carriers due to our expansive route network, competitive pricing, greater availability of flight services to these destinations and strong brand name.

Domestic Rail

The PRC government is aggressively implementing the expansion of its domestic high-speed rail network, which has provided train services at speeds of up to 350 km per hour connecting major cities such as Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou and Hong Kong. The expansion of the coverage of this network and improvements in railway service quality, increased passenger capacity and stations located closer to urban centers than competing airports could enhance the relative competitiveness of the railway service and affect our market share on some of our key routes, in particular our routes between 500 km to 800 km. The high-speed railway routes in Yunnan Province gradually commenced operations in 2018, and has affected our routes in Yunnan Province.

With the establishment of a PRC national high-speed railway network, we will inevitably face increasing competition and pricing pressures from this railway service. Therefore, we have been taking active measures in decreasing the number of short-haul routes that overlap with such high-speed train routes, as well as adjusting certain airfare prices on affected routes, facilitating “air-to-railway” transfers, adjusting the flight structure, and allocating flight resources to alternative routes or medium-to-long-haul routes that have higher profitability, higher demand and lessened competition. In addition, in 2013, we developed ground connection services such as Air-Rail Service and Air-Bus Service and cooperated with Disney, brand hotel groups, and renowned international travel enterprises to develop travel products. In 2017, our Air-Rail Service and Air-Bus Service developed steadily with increased routes in Yangtze River Delta, Xi’an, Lanzhou and other cities and regions. We expect to continue exploring cooperation opportunities with domestic railway authorities, while maintaining and strengthening our other competitive advantages, which include providing high quality services, increasing our pre-sale product promotions and developing our transfer services. In 2018, we continued to promote our Air-Rail Service and Air-Bus Service to mitigate the effects of the new high-speed train routes on our corresponding routes.

Regional

Our Hong Kong routes are highly competitive. We currently operate approximately 20 flight routes between various cities in mainland China and Hong Kong. The primary competitors on our Hong Kong routes are Cathay Pacific Airways (“Cathay”), Hong Kong Dragon Airlines Limited (“Dragonair”) and HongKong Airlines. Cathay, Dragonair and HongKong Airlines compete with us on several of these routes, particularly the Shanghai-Hong Kong route. We also face competition from Spring Airlines on our Shanghai-Hong Kong and Shanghai-Macau routes. In addition, we face competition from HK Express on our Kunming-Hong Kong route. The Air Transportation Arrangement signed between the PRC government and the administrative government of Hong Kong in February, 2000 provides for equal opportunity for airlines based in Hong Kong and mainland China. As a result, Dragonair has increased the frequency of its flights on several of our Hong Kong routes, resulting in intensified competition.

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The policy restraint on direct flights between Taiwan and mainland China has been further loosened in the past few years but there has been no further negotiation on the expansion of such arrangement between Taiwan and mainland China since mid-2016. We currently operate flights to Taipei from Shanghai, Xi’an, Kunming, Changzhou, Hefei, Huai’an, Yinchuan, Nanchang, Lanzhou, Lijiang, Ningbo, Nanjing, Qingdao, Huangshan, Taiyuan, Wuhuan, Wuxi and Xining. We currently compete with China Airlines on our Shanghai-Taipei routes. However, given the arrangement is subject to the political relationship between Taiwan and mainland China, any deterioration in such political relationship may cause the discontinuity or disruption in the flight arrangement. As one of the several airlines offering Taiwan-mainland China direct flight services, we cannot assure you that we will maintain or will continue to be allocated sufficient Taiwan-mainland China routes, or our results will not be aversely impacted.

We compete with Air Macau on the Shanghai Pudong-Macau route. Air Macau’s routes also provide an alternative to our Hong Kong routes for passengers traveling between Taiwan and mainland China.

International

We compete with Air China, China Southern and many other well-established foreign carriers on our international routes. Most of our international competitors are very well-known international carriers and are substantially larger than we are and have substantially greater financial resources than we do. Many of our international competitors also have significantly longer operating histories and greater name recognition than we do. Some international passengers, who may perceive these airlines to be safer and provide better service than Chinese airlines in general, may prefer to travel on these airlines. In addition, many of our international competitors have more extensive sales networks and utilize more developed reservation systems than ours, or engage in promotional activities, such as frequent flyer programs, that may be more popular than ours and effectively enhance their ability to attract international passengers.

To improve our competitive position in international markets, we have established additional dedicated overseas sales offices, launched our own frequent flyer program, participated in “Asia Miles”, a popular frequent flyer program in Asia, and entered into code-sharing arrangements with a number of foreign airlines. We have also improved our online reservation and payment system. In addition, in June 2011, we joined SkyTeam, an international airlines alliance and frequent flyer mileage program that includes, among others, international carriers such as Delta, China Southern, Alitalia, Air France and KLM. As a member of SkyTeam alliance, our Elite members can enjoy approximately 516 lounges worldwide. In 2013, we implemented code-sharing programs covering 242 routes with 11 SkyTeam member airlines. In the meantime, we also started code-sharing cooperation with seven non-SkyTeam member airlines, covering more than 150 routes, including Japan Airlines and Qantas Airways Limited. In 2014, we proactively promoted international cooperation among members and non-members airlines of SkyTeam Alliance at various levels and expanded its route network to increase its brand recognition. We implemented transit service cooperation with China Airlines, Delta Airlines and Air France between different terminals at Shanghai Pudong International Airport. We facilitate joint sales by optimizing transit connection with Delta Airlines and enhanced co-operations with Air France by increasing the number of code-share flights. We also comprehensively improved cooperation on the China-Australia route by establishing joint operation with Qantas.

In 2015, we actively responded to the industry competition, strove for additions of air traffic rights and time slot resources in hub markets and core markets, steadily improved the aircraft utilization rate and consolidated and expanded market share in the three largest hubs and core markets. Based on the SkyTeam Alliance platform, we enhanced our strategic cooperation with Delta Air Lines and cooperated with Air France and Qantas to develop a highly efficient and convenient flight network, which covered the whole country and connected to the whole world.

In 2016, we proactively promoted the establishment of transportation hubs with the opening of various international routes for long-haul flights and an enhanced coverage of our transportation network. With Shanghai as the core hub, we added six international routes for long-haul flights to our network, connecting Shanghai and Prague, Amsterdam, Madrid, St. Petersburg, Chicago and Brisbane, respectively. We provided more frequent flight services on routes connecting Shanghai and New York City, Los Angeles, Sydney and Melbourne. We added routes connecting Kunming and Sydney, Qingdao and San Francisco, Nanjing and Vancouver and Hangzhou and Sydney. Last, we stabilized the allocation of our flight capacities for Japan, Korea and Southeast Asia markets. As a result of these enhanced transit connection and expanded transit routes structures. Meanwhile, we also continued to strengthen our cooperation with airlines which are not members of the SkyTeam Alliance. We and Qantas Airways opened up our respective VIP lounges in the PRC and Australia to each other. Through cooperating with British Airways, Royal Brunei Airlines and China Express Airlines in code sharing, we optimized our transit connection at London Heathrow Airport and enhanced the level of coverage of our route network in Southeast Asia.

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In 2017, we actively responded to the competition in international market. We have strengthened our cooperation with Air-France KLM and Delta to further extend our international route and improve our competitiveness and reputation in the international market. Relying on the cooperation platform of SkyTeam Airline Alliance, we have newly launched code-share cooperation with Air Europa Líneas Aéreas, S.A.U. (IATA code: UX) from Spain and Czech Airlines j.s.c. (IATA code: OK). In addition, the agreement of “Fully Opening of the Aviation Market” between China and Australia has intensified the competition in the Australian market, yet, it has caused us to strengthen our cooperation within the SkyTeam Airline Alliance, especially joining hands with Qantas Airlines, a cooperative partner, to expand the route network and share the infrastructure and resources of the main bases of both parties. We deepened our cooperation with Qantas Airlines in terms of code sharing, joint operation and sales. We commenced to launch code-sharing cooperation with Jet Airways (India) Ltd. (IATA code: 9W) and Air Mauritius Limited (IATA code: MK). In 2017, we also proactively adjust our capacities in international routes according to the market situation.

In 2018, in addition to our intensified cooperation with strategic partners to enrich the contents for cooperation and enhance the quality of cooperation, we also expanded our cooperation on code sharing with other domestic and international air carriers. For example, we launched code sharing on new domestic and international routes with Xiamen Air, Vietnam Airlines, Kenya Airways and Alitalia, covering routes from China to Asia, Europe and Africa.

Maintenance and Safety

The rapid increase in air traffic volume in China in recent years has put pressure on many components of China’s airline industry, including air traffic control systems, the availability of qualified flight personnel and airport facilities. In recent years, the CAAC has placed increasing emphasis on the safety of airline operations in China and has implemented a number of measures aimed at improving the safety record of the airlines. Our ability to provide safe air transportation in the future depends on the availability of qualified and experienced pilots in China and the improvement of maintenance services, national air traffic control and navigational systems and ground control operations at Chinese airports. We have a good safety record and regard the safety of our flights as the most important component of our operations.

Maintenance Capability

Through our cooperation with service providers and ventures with other companies, we currently perform regular repair and maintenance checks on all of our aircraft, which include D1 checks, C checks and other maintenance services for certain aircraft and other flight equipment. We also perform certain maintenance services for other Chinese and international airlines. We have four main maintenance bases in Shanghai, Kunming and Xi’an and several maintenance bases in our provincial hubs including Taiyuan, Qingdao and etc. Our primary aircraft maintenance base is at Pudong International Airport. We employed approximately 12,262 workers as maintenance personnel as of December 31, 2018. We prepared our own training plan for our employees to meet the requirements of certain regulations and the needs for future development. In order to enhance our maintenance capabilities and to reduce our maintenance costs, we have acquired additional maintenance equipment, tools and fixtures and other assets over the past few years, such as airborne testing and aircraft data recovery and analysis equipment. In 2018, we also increased our capacities in our maintenance bases in Kunming and Xi’an for the maintenance of narrow-body aircraft. Our avionics equipment is primarily maintained and repaired at our electronic maintenance equipment center located in Shanghai.

We entered into a joint venture with Honeywell International Inc. (“Honeywell”), formerly Allied Signal Inc., in Shanghai for performing maintenance and repairs on aircraft wheel assemblies and brakes. Since October 1997, we have operated a maintenance hangar at Hongqiao International Airport, which has the capacity to house two wide-body aircraft. We and Rockwell Collins International Inc. of the United States have also co-established Collins Aviation Maintenance Service Shanghai Limited, which is primarily engaged in the provision of repair and maintenance services for avionics and aircraft in-flight entertainment facilities in China. We and Rockwell Collins International Inc. hold 35% and 65%, respectively, of the equity interests in the joint venture. Moreover, in November 2002, we, jointly with Aircraft Engineering Investment Limited, established Shanghai Eastern Aircraft Maintenance Limited, in which we hold 60% of the equity interests, to provide supplemental avionics and other maintenance services to us. STA, which was established in 2004 by us and Singapore Technologies Aerospace Ltd. under a joint venture agreement dated March 10, 2003, also provides us with aircraft maintenance, repair and overhaul services. In 2018, we entered into 11 agreements with Honeywell, pursuant to which we expected we could save certain repairing costs.

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On November 6, 2007, we entered into a joint venture with United Technologies Corp., or UTC, to establish Shanghai Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Engine Maintenance Co., Ltd., or Pratt & Whitney, for performing maintenance and repairs on aircraft engines. We and UTC contributed US$20,145,000 and US$19,355,000, respectively, to the registered capital and hold 51% and 49%, respectively, of the equity interests in the joint venture. Moreover, after our absorption of Shanghai Airlines, we took over its 15% equity interest in Boeing Shanghai Aviation Services Co., Ltd. (“Boeing Shanghai”). As of December 31, 2013, Boeing (China) Investment Co., Ltd., Shanghai Airport (Group) Co., Ltd. and Boeing (Asia) Services Investment Limited hold 35.3%, 25.0% and 24.7%, respectively, of the remaining equity interest. Boeing Shanghai was founded in 2006 with a registered capital of US$85,000,000, and operates a maintenance hangar with the capacity to provide aircraft modification and maintenance services for two wide-body aircraft and one narrow-body aircraft and provides aircraft modification and maintenance services. In addition, we also hold 50% of Shanghai Airlines’ previous equity interest in Shanghai Hute Aviation Technology Co., Ltd. (“Shanghai Hute”). The remaining equity interest is held by Sichuan Haite High-Tech Co., Ltd. Shanghai Hute was founded in 2003 with a registered capital of RMB30,000,000, and provides maintenance services for aviation equipment. The enhancement of our maintenance capabilities allows us to perform various maintenance operations in-house and continue to maintain lower spare parts inventory levels.

Since December 2014, we have adopted an innovative asset management model and established Eastern Airlines Technology Co. Ltd. (“Eastern Technology”), a wholly-owned subsidiary specializing in aircraft maintenance, to explore the transformation of supporting assets to operational assets. In 2015, Eastern Technology engaged in aircraft maintenance, raised its standards for aircraft maintenance and construction management to facilitate our centralized control over aircraft maintenance, and focused on high-end premium operations, such as providing maintenance services for aircraft for Chinese routes operated by international airlines and sharing of aviation equipment. In 2016, other airlines such as Singapore Airlines, AirAsia and Royal Brunei Airlines became customers of Eastern Technology, whose area of operation expanded to locations including Xi’an, Jinan, Wuhan and Wuxi. In 2017, other airlines such as Macau Airlines, Delta, Asiana Airlines, Hong Kong Airlines and Malaysia Airlines became customers of Eastern Technology. In 2018, we continued our efforts in expanding our maintenance services. We became the maintenance service provider for a total of 11 airlines in 17 stations in 2018.

Safety

The provision of safe and reliable air services for all of our customers is one of our primary operational objectives. We implement uniform safety standards and safety-related training programs in all operations. Our flight safety management division monitors and supervises our flight safety. We have had a flight safety committee since the commencement of our business, comprised of members of our senior management, to formulate policies and implement routine safety checks at our Shanghai headquarters and all provincial hubs. The flight safety committee meets monthly to review our overall operation safety record during the most recent quarter and to adopt measures to improve flight safety based upon these reviews. We have also implemented an employee incentive program, using a system of monetary rewards and discipline, to encourage compliance with the CAAC safety standards and our safety procedures. We periodically evaluate the skills, experience and safety records of our pilots in order to maintain strict control over the quality of our pilot crews. In 2011, we were awarded the “Flight Safety Five-star Award” by CAAC for our commitment to aviation and operations safety.

In 2013, we continued to strengthen our Safety Management System (“SMS”). We issued work implementation plans that provided specific measures to address risks such as lighting strikes, hard aircraft landings and communication systems failures. In addition, we established the Nantong Airport training base to provide additional training programs for our flight crews. Furthermore, we formulated the “Assessment and Remuneration Packages of Star-rating flight Crew Members”, which commenced star-rating assessment of all flight crew members in terms of flight safety, flight quality, discipline and provision of services. The management of each of our provincial hub operations is responsible for the flight safety operations at the respective hub under the supervision of our flight safety management division. We prepare monthly safety bulletins detailing recent developments in safety practices and procedures and distribute them to each of our flight crew, the maintenance department and the flight safety management department. The CAAC also requires us to prepare and submit semi-annual and annual flight safety reports.

Regarding the strengthening of the SMS, we have (i) organized training for the administrators of safety management of all operating units, deepened the understanding for the construction of SMS, laying the groundwork for SMS; (ii) followed our plans and orderly commenced the construction of the analytical network. We had a number of cooperation meetings, discussing the master framework, which carries the system. We also introduced the concept of safety indicators for operational progress, rendering safety management more comprehensible; and (iii) continuously improved the risks database of the relevant routes and airports, strengthening the application of the different databases on the actual process of operation.

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In 2014, we continued to facilitate the construction and application of the SMS and strictly implementing risk management. We also put greater efforts in safety inspection and supervision as well as fulfillment of responsibilities in relation to safety enhancement. We enhanced its flight training management and commenced specialized training covering pilots management and transition to B777-300ER aircraft to reinforce the foundations of flight safety. Emphasizing technology applications, we established a research institute of flight safety technology application to provide intellectual support to our ongoing safe operations.

All of our jet passenger aircraft pilots participated in the manufacturer training and support programs sponsored by Airbus and Boeing and are required to undergo recurrent flight simulator training and to participate in a flight theory course periodically. We use flight simulators for A320, A330, A340, B737NG, B737-300, B777 aircraft at our own training facility, the training facility located in the CAAC training center or overseas training facilities.

We placed great emphasis on ensuring safe operation and will continue to do so. In 2015, we established an integrated management and control model incorporating regional management, safety audit and safety supervision to further improve our safety management and control system, and pushed ahead the establishment of the Management of Risk Control System (MORCS) to enhance safety risk prevention on an ongoing basis. We have also promoted phase 2 of the Electronic Flight Bag, focusing on technical difficulties such as operation of above plateau airports, and has been enhancing our research capability in flying technology, providing psychological support to our pilots and improving emergency drills to implement in-flight safety requirements strictly.

In 2016, we further enhanced our safety management system by strengthening the enforcement of safety responsibilities, strengthening our safety supervision and inspection, strengthening our risk control over special routes and international routes for long-haul flights, enhancing our operational risk alert abilities, boosting the quality of training for our pilots, improving our system for developing talents with core skills, enhancing our ability in handling security-related contingencies, and strictly implementing safety requirements for our flights.

In 2017, through the formulation of safety management responsibility list, we strengthened procedure management and enforced safety management responsibilities. We also carried out safety management system effectiveness evaluation to enhance our abilities in identifying and managing material operational risks. In addition, we improved our emergency handbooks and emergency flows to enhance its ability in handling contingencies, as well as conducted comprehensive safety inspections and adopted specific prevention measures targeting material risk-prone areas to strengthen risk management. We made use of information technology to disseminate safety information and risk alerts quickly and strengthened the application of technology in safety management. We developed air defense information system to promote the integration of air security and ensured the safety of air defense. In 2017, we had 2,073,000 safe flying hours and 879,700 take-off and landing flights, which is an increase of 8.0% and 7.0%, respectively, over the same period of year 2016.

In 2018, we continued to emphasize our commitment to safety. We recognized major operational risks by conducting scientific researches, formulated specific management and control measures, focused on enhancing the prevention of safety risks, continuously optimized the management mechanism of safety performance, implemented safety responsibilities at all levels, and effectively increased the capability of safety management. In 2018, our fleet had 2,206,000 safe flying hours in total, which have increased by 6.6% over the same period in 2017. In 2018, our fleet had 930,100 take-off and landing flights, which have increased by 6.0% over the same period in 2017.

Cyber-security

With respect to our internal policies on cyber-security and internet safety, we have established an information safety management system and issued internal regulations on cyber-security, internal hardware and data safety systems to prevent loss of information due to cyber-security incidents, network outages or hardware incidents. We also plan to implement measures relating to the office environment information safety management and information system emergency management, information system access control, protection from any malicious software, management of information exchange tools and internal review and audit of information safety risks. Furthermore, we have entered into a strategic cooperation plan with the China Information Technology Security Evaluation Center by which their trained engineers evaluate our internal data security policies and cyber-security measures. In 2012, we established and announced two internal regulations relating to cyber-security, namely, China Eastern Airlines Information Security Management Regulation and China Eastern Airlines Information System Application and Development Safety Regulation and in 2013, we established and announced another two internal regulations relating to cyber-security, namely, China Eastern Airlines Information Security Incident Management Regulation and China Eastern Airlines Information System Classification Measures, which we believe will strengthen our information safety management systems and overall cyber-security defenses. During the year ended December 31, 2014, we did not experience any material cyber-security incidents or related losses.

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In 2014, regarding the risks in relation to internet security of the aviation section, we took the following preventive measures: (i) putting in place a monitoring system; (ii) clarifying the responsibilities relating to internet, mainframe computer, operation and maintenance, product development and management; (iii) having internet security equipment; (iv) having manual inspection and(v) preparing for emergency response.

In June 2014, we promulgated documents Class I to V for CEA Information Security Management System, including directions, management requirements, operation manual and recorded output documents at security level, and passed the ISO27001 (international information security standard) certificate qualification in November 2014. Our internet security policy was synchronized with the ISO27001.

In 2015, we established a routine inspection system and a contingency mechanism for its reporting website for external security breach. The data loss prevention (DLP) project was implemented and our information security management system passed the ISO27000 certification. In the future, we will further improve our security code review and management system; promote the construction of IPS at the internet portal and the information technology disaster backup center to elevate the overall protection level on our information system security.

In 2016, we conducted information system emergency response training and commissioned the construction of our Xi’an disaster backup facility. In addition, we implemented security code review and security protection around the boundaries of our internet and data center, optimized the multi-dimensional security protection system and elevated the overall security protection level on our information system.

In 2017, we based on the “Three Centers in Two Places” plan to promote our work on the construction of the Xi’an data and disaster backup facility and the construction of a globalized basic assurance and service system. We optimized the multi-dimensional security protection system on the internet and the data center to prevent the attack of the “WANNACRY” ransomware effectively. We conducted information system emergency response training and relied on security code quality analysis to implement security code review and security protection. We also commenced security review for information system and enhanced emergency response of internet security, optimized the multi-dimensional security protection system on the internet and the data center and safeguarded the security of key information infrastructure, elevating the overall security protection standard on our information system. In 2017, our information security management system passed the ISO27001 review for certification renewal and the ISO20000 review.

In 2018, we established and announced two internal regulations relating to cyber-security, namely China Eastern Airlines Accounts Management Regulation and China Eastern Airlines Information System and Personal Data Protection Management Requirements. In addition, in strict compliance with the relevant provisions of the “General Data Protection Regulation” by the European Union, we have appointed a “data protection officer” to enhance the protection of customer information and prevent network security risks. In 2018, our information security management system passed the ISO27001 review for certification renewal.

We did not purchase any insurance for internet security.

Fuel Supplies

Jet fuel is one of the major expenses of airlines. Fuel costs represented approximately 29.9% of our total operating expenses in 2018. We currently purchase a significant portion of the aviation fuel for our domestic routes from regional branches of the CAOSC. Fuel costs in China are affected by costs at domestic refineries and limitations in the transportation infrastructure, as well as by insufficient storage facilities for aviation fuel in certain regions of China. Fuel prices at six designated major airports in China, namely, the airports in Shanghai Pudong, Shanghai Hongqiao, Beijing, Guangzhou, Shenzhen and Tianjin, are set and adjusted once a month by the CAAC in accordance with prevailing fuel prices on the international market. For our international routes, we purchase a portion of our aviation fuel from foreign fuel suppliers located at the destinations of these routes, generally at international market prices. Significant fluctuations of international oil prices will significantly impact jet fuel prices and our revenue from fuel surcharge and accordingly our results of operations.

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In 2018, our total aircraft fuel cost was approximately RMB33,680 million, representing an increase of 34.0% from RMB25,131 million in 2017, which was mainly due to an increase in average price of oil as the increased oil production volume of OPEC and other oil suppliers was lower than that the market expected and the political upheaval in the Middle East and Venezuela increased the uncertainty of oil production, and to a lesser extent, an increase in our volume of refueling from 2017 to 2018. We cannot assure you that fuel prices will not fluctuate in the future. Further, due to the highly competitive nature of the airline industry and government regulation on airfare pricing, we may be unable to fully or effectively pass on to our customers any increased fuel costs we may encounter in the future. However, we intend to continue focusing on enhancing our jet fuel procurement policies and developing additional internal cost-control measures, which include streamlining the number of aircraft models in our fleet and optimizing route structures, which we believe will enable us to control our fuel costs.

Ground Facilities and Services

The center of our operations is Shanghai, one of China’s principal air transportation hubs. Our Shanghai operations are based at Hongqiao International Airport and Pudong International Airport. We currently also operate from various other domestic airports. We have hangars, aircraft parking and other airport service facilities at these airports, and provide ground services in these locations.

We have our own ground services and other operational services, such as aircraft cleaning and refueling and the handling of passengers and cargo for our operations at Hongqiao International Airport and Pudong International Airport. We also provide ground services for many other airlines that operate to and from Hongqiao International Airport and Pudong International Airport.

In-flight meals and other catering services for our Shanghai-originated flights are provided primarily by Shanghai Eastern Air Catering Limited Liability Company, a joint venture company affiliated with CEA Holding. We generally contract with local catering companies for flights originating from other airports.

In 2017, we enhanced the flight management to reduce the delay in takeoff. We also improved our service in self check-in management by optimizing our internal management process. In addition, we deepened our cooperation with Air-France KLM, Delta and other members of the SkyTeam to provide through check-in services in various domestic airports and international airports.

In 2018, we continued to optimize digitalized experiences by increasing the mobile phone, internet and overseas self check-in usage rates. Taking the lead in various indicators of the country (such as the usage rate of self check-in), we achieved usage rate of self check-in of 78.6% in China, representing an increase of 7.4 percentage points compared to 2017, and the usage rate of self check-in for international route amounted to 32.9%, representing an increase of 10.2 percentage points compared to 2017. To provide convenience to our passengers, we also introduced self inquiry function on WeChat in 2018 so that our passengers can check the flight and baggage information easily. In addition, automated security screening has been officially launched in 2018.

Marketing and Sales

Passenger Operations

Our marketing strategy with respect to passenger operations is primarily aimed at increasing our market share for all categories of air travelers. With respect to our Hong Kong and international routes, we are permitted to market our services based on price. We have limited flexibility in setting our airfares for domestic routes and adjust our domestic airfares in response to market demand. As part of our overall marketing strategy, we emphasize our commitment to safety and service quality. We believe that emphasis on safety is a critical component of our ability to compete successfully.

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We have also adopted customized strategies to market our services to particular travelers. We seek to establish long-term customer relationships with business entities that have significant air travel requirements. In order to attract and retain business travelers, we focus on the frequency of flights between major business centers, convenient transit services and an extensive sales network. We launched our initial frequent flyer program in 1998 and joined the “Asia Miles” frequent flyer program in April 2001 to attract and retain travelers. In August 2003, we upgraded and rebranded our frequent flyer program to “Eastern Miles” and introduced a series of new services, including, among others, instant registration of membership and mileage, online registration of mileage, and accumulation of mileage on expenses at certain hotels, restaurants and other service providers that are our strategic partners. As a result of our continual efforts to develop the “Eastern Miles” program, the number of members of the frequent flyer program reached over 22.8 million in 2014. The special services hotline “95530” call center was established and came into operation in 2004. In light of the expansion of national high-speed railway network, we have cooperated with the Shanghai Railway Bureau to launch “Air-Rail Pass Transportation” products. Our domestic and international flights together with the high-speed railway products at Shanghai Hongqiao International Airport and Shanghai Pudong International Airport, have formed an air-rail two-way transportation product, which has helped us broaden our customer resources.

In terms of our customer resources, we have actively explored and expanded our customer base of high-end business travelers to accelerate the development of group clients. In addition, we have fully promoted the expansion of Eastern Miles membership. In order to attract more members and to provide members with better experience in terms of diversity, comprehensiveness and flexibility, we have strengthened our cooperation with retail stores by increasing the number of co-operative stores, covering various industries such as financial services, hotel, car rental and health services. We also strengthened the operation of points mall, enriched point redemption products, and optimized the points payment function. As of the end of 2018, frequent flyer members of “Eastern Miles” reached 39.6 million, increased by 18.8% compared to 2017. We actively launched marketing campaigns along with the Spring Festival, Qingming Festival, Double Eleven, etc., to boost our sales. Meanwhile, we placed emphasis on and strengthened the cooperation with travel management companies (“TMC”), online travel agency’s (OTA) agents and major customers. In 2018, we continued to intensify and deepen the long-term partnership with Ctrip Computer Technology (Shanghai) Co., Ltd. In 2018, our TMC sales revenue increased by 40.3% year-on-year; our corporate clients increased to 9,283, representing a year-on-year increase of 25.2%; and revenue from our corporate clients increased by 27.8% year-on-year.

Our advertising, marketing and other promotional activities include the use of online platforms, radio, television and print advertisements. We plan to continue to use advertising and promotional campaigns to increase sales on new routes and competitive routes.

In 2016, China Eastern Airlines E-Commerce Co., Ltd. (“Eastern E-Commerce”) established an e-commerce platform by integrating our online and offline platforms. Ticket returns, rebooking and upgrades via multiple channels, such as our official website, mobile application and member website were launched with success. In 2017, 12 major updates were made to our mobile application. In 2018, we continuously optimized the customers’ experience on our official website and mobile application, added and optimized important functions such as pre-flight ordering of in-flight meals and publication of information regarding unusual flights. We vigorously promoted the establishment of overseas e-commerce platform, launched 14 new overseas websites and introduced value-added products such as oversized baggage check-in, VIP lounges and online seat selection.

Ticket Booking Systems

In 2002 and again in 2012, we upgraded our online ticket booking and payment system to facilitate customer purchases of tickets via the Internet. In 2012, we also expedited the construction of nine overseas websites in a variety of languages. Currently, our global website covers North America, Australia, Europe and Asia Pacific. We continue to encourage our customers to book and purchase tickets via the Internet by initiating various promotional campaigns, upgrading and expanding the services offered by our online sales system. In 2012, we introduced “China Eastern Mobile E”, a smartphone application that provides mobile flight booking, flight status and online checking services, which we believe will provide our customers with additional convenient, value-added services. In 2013, we introduced a new version of China Eastern Mobile E and increased the application of “China Eastern Mobile E” to 14 airports. In 2016, we introduced the English version of “China Eastern Mobile E” to our customers. In addition, we introduced “M Website”, a website portal that provides mobile flight booking, flight status and online checking services and applied several third-party payment platforms to our ticket booking system. We also increased the success rate of website payment. In addition, we updated the ability for sale activities and self-service.

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In 2017, to expand direct sales channels effectively, we launched “Air Tickets Market” offline while strengthened online sales channels on our official website and mobile user terminals, continued to enhance our ability in direct sales. Our revenue from direct sales increased significantly by 34.3% as compared to 2016 representing 51.2% of revenue, which increased 11 percentage points as compared to 2016 while agency fee expenses reduced continuously. In 2017, the amount of tickets purchased from our official website and mobile application reached approximately 10.5 million and led to the revenue of approximately RMB10.2 billion, representing approximately 16% of the total revenue of ticket sales.

In 2018, we continued to update our mobile phone application and our official website to enhance our direct sales efforts. We vigorously promoted the establishment of overseas e-commerce platform, launched 14 new overseas websites and provided 13 major updates to our mobile phone application. In 2018, revenue from our direct sales channels (including our official website and mobile phone application) reached approximately RMB14.9 billion, representing an increase of approximately 26.7% from 2017. Particularly, revenue generated from sales through our domestic version of mobile phone application reached approximately RMB5.1 billion, representing a year-over-year increase of approximately 62.0%.

We also maintain an extensive domestic network of sales agents and representatives in order to promote in-person ticket sales and to assist customers. Direct sales are also promoted through the availability of our telephone reservation and confirmation services. In addition to our domestic sales agents located in various cities in mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, we maintain overseas sales or representative offices worldwide, including: (i) North American locations such as Honolulu, Los Angeles, New York, San Francisco and Vancouver; (ii) European and Middle Eastern locations such as Frankfurt, Hamburg, London, Moscow, Paris, Rome, Madrid, Brussels and Munich; (iii) Asia-Pacific locations such as Seoul, Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Fukuoka, Hiroshima, Sapporo, Niigata, Fukushima, Okinawa, Shizuoka, Kanazawa, Toyama, Nagasaki, Kagoshima, Okayama, Matsuyama, Singapore, Bangkok, Phuket, New Delhi, Kolkata, Kuala Lumpur, Ho Chi Minh, Bali, Dubai, Dhaka, Phnom Penh, Siem Reap, Vientiane, Yangon, Mandalay, Kathmandu and Maldives; and (iv) Australian locations such as Melbourne and Sydney.

As of June 1, 2008, we stopped issuing paper tickets for air travel in accordance with a mandate from the International Air Transport Association (“IATA”). The IATA currently represents approximately 290 airlines and comprises approximately 82% of the world’s air traffic. As a result of the mandate, we now issue electronic itineraries and receipts as well as electronic tickets to our passengers. We believe the transition to 100% electronic ticketing will decrease administrative costs, increase flexibility and travel options for passengers, in addition to benefiting the environment through the reduced need for paper. All of our direct passenger ticket sales are recorded on our computer systems. Most Chinese airlines, including us, are required to use the passenger reservation service system provided by the CAAC’s computer information management center, which is linked with the computer systems of major Chinese commercial airlines. We have also entered into membership agreements with several international reservation systems, including ABACUS, the largest computer reservation system in southeast Asia, TOPAS of Korea, SABRE, GALILEO and WORLDSPAN of the United States, AMADEUS of Europe, INFINI and AXESS of Japan and Sirena-Travel of Russia, which have made it easier for customers and sales agents to make reservations and purchase tickets for our international flights. In addition, we have entered into distribution agreements with ABACUS, TOPAS, SABRE, GALILEO and AMADEUS.

SkyTeam Alliance

We officially joined SkyTeam, an international airlines alliance and frequent flyer mileage program that includes international carriers such as, among others, Delta, China Southern, Alitalia, Air France and KLM, on June 21, 2011.

By the end of 2015, we have entered into frequent flyer and airport lounges agreements with 20 SkyTeam member airlines and implemented code-sharing programs covering 670 routes, as well as 336 routes with non-SkyTeam member airlines, which has further broadened the coverage of our route network. By the end of 2016, we implemented code-sharing programs with 12 SkyTeam member airlines and the number of code sharing routes with non-SkyTeam member airlines increased by 52% as compared to 2015. We also cooperated with nine SkyTeam member airlines including Delta, Air France and KLM, China, Alitalia, Garuda Indonesia and Iberia in joint check-ins for 21 transit points. By the end of 2017, we implemented code-sharing programs with 14 SkyTeam member airlines. The two newly cooperated SkyTeam members are Air Europa Líneas Aéreas, S.A.U. (IATA code: UX) from Spain and Czech Airlines j.s.c. (IATA code: OK). In 2018, we continued to expand our code-sharing programs with SkyTeam members on more routes.

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By connecting to the route networks of other SkyTeam member airlines, we were able to offer our passengers seamless transit to 25 destinations in 14 countries under a single plane ticket with direct luggage services as of December 31, 2018. Passengers may also enjoy the comfort of more than 750 VIP airport lounges of SkyTeam around the world. We believe this will be another benefit for our passengers, as they will be afforded additional flight options and frequent flyer mileage benefits through our SkyTeam alliance partners. In addition, we will benefit from possible codeshare and cooperative flight options, reduced costs and increased alliance-related marketing and promotion overseas.

Tourism and Travel Services

In addition to our airline operations, we also generate commission revenues from tickets sold on behalf of other airlines. With our subsidiary, Shanghai Airlines, we derive revenue from tourism and travel services through Shanghai Airlines Tours. Shanghai Airlines Tours provides various business and leisure travel services, including inbound, outbound and domestic travel, conference and exhibition planning, flight chartering and plane ticket reservation, tour bus and hotel reservation and other related services. Shanghai Airlines Tours is a member of the China Association of Travel Services and Shanghai Association of Tourism (International and Domestic Travel Services divisions), as well as a member of Shanghai Association of Quality, and has been admitted into many international travel organizations including the IATA. Shanghai Airlines Tours has won several awards as a travel services provider, as well as awards and honors for its professional staff and vacation package offerings.

In 2017, Shanghai Airlines Tours continued to optimized its business and leisure travel services under two brands, namely, “Shanghai Airlines Travel” and “Shanghai Airlines Holiday”, by developing new tourism products and models. Shanghai Airlines Tours launched its online official store to expand its direct sale channels and consolidated its online and offline channels to make full use of its resources. It also successfully became the supplier of several government departments. In addition, Shanghai Airlines Tours strengthened the cooperation with our other subsidiaries to connect its business to ours to improve the overall service quality and performance. In 2018, Shanghai Airlines Tours continued to connect its business to our main business by promoting the publicity of some of our routes through its travel itineraries and group travel packages as well as providing travel-related services to members within our Group. In addition, Shanghai Airlines Tours further enhanced its online channels by increasing the exposure of its travel products to our mobile phone application and platforms of other famous OTAs.

Patents and Trademarks

We own or have obtained licenses to use various domestic and foreign patents, patent applications and trademarks related to our business. While patents, patent applications and trademarks are important to our competitive position, no single one is material to us as a whole. In addition, we own various trademarks related to our business. The most important trademark is the service trademark of China Eastern Airlines Corporation Limited. All of our trademarks are registered in China.

Insurance

The CAAC purchases fleet insurance from PICC Property and Casualty Company Limited (“PICC”), and China Pacific Property Insurance Company Ltd., on behalf of all Chinese airlines. PICC has reinsured a substantial portion of its aircraft insurance business through Lloyd’s of London. The fleet insurance is subject to certain deductibles. The premium payable in connection with the insurance is allocated among all Chinese airlines based on the aircraft owned or leased by these airlines. Under the relevant PRC laws, the maximum civil liability of Chinese airlines for injuries to passengers traveling on domestic flights has been increased to RMB400,000 per passenger in March 2006, for which we also purchase insurance. As of July 31, 2006, the Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules for International Carriage by Air of 1999, or Montreal Convention, became effective in China. Under the Montreal Convention, carriers of international flights are strictly liable for proven damages up to 100,000 Special Drawing Rights and beyond that, carriers are only able to exclude liability if they can prove that the damage was not due to negligence or other wrongful act of the carrier (and its agents) or if the damage solely arose from the negligence or other wrongful act of a third party. We believe that we maintain adequate insurance coverage for the civil liability that can be imposed due to injuries to passengers under Chinese law, the Montreal Convention and any other agreement we are subject to. We also maintain hull all risk, hull war risk and aircraft legal liability insurance, including third party liability insurance, of the types and in amounts customary for Chinese airlines.

C. Organizational Structure

See the section headed “Item 4. Information on the Company - History and Development of the Company”.

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D. Property, Plant And Equipment

Fleet

As of December 31, 2018, we operated a fleet of 692 aircraft, including 680 passenger aircraft, most with a seating capacity of over 100 seats and 12 business aircraft held under trust. In 2018, we introduced 67 aircraft of major models. With the introduction of new aircraft, such as A350-900, B787-9 and A320NEO, and the retirement of B767 aircraft, our fleet age structure has been made younger.

We plan to continue to expand our scale in the future and to adjust and optimize our route network, thereby increasing our competitiveness and ability to create more attractive products and services to meet the needs of the market.

Existing Fleet

The following table sets forth the details of our fleet as of December 31, 2018:

Note:

(1) A330 series aircraft includes A330-200 aircraft and A330-300 aircraft;

A320 series aircraft includes A319 aircraft, A320 aircraft, A320NEO aircraft and A321 aircraft; and

B737 series aircraft includes B737-700 aircraft, B737-800 aircraft and B737 MAX 8 aircraft.

The table below sets forth the daily average utilization rates of our jet passenger aircraft for the year ended December 31, 2018:

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Most of our jet passenger aircraft were manufactured by either Airbus or Boeing. On July 9, 2015, we entered into a purchase agreement with Boeing Company to purchase fifty new Boeing B737 series aircraft which are expected to be delivered to us in stages from 2017 to 2019. On August 14, 2015, we also entered into a purchase agreement with Airbus SAS to purchase fifteen new Airbus A330 series aircraft, which are expected to be delivered to us in stages from 2017 to 2018. On April 28, 2016, we entered into a purchase agreement with Boeing Company to purchase 15 B787-9 aircraft, which are expected to be delivered to us in stages from 2018 to 2021. On the same day, we also entered into a purchase agreement with Airbus SAS to purchase 20 Airbus A350-900 series aircraft, which are expected to be delivered to us in stages from 2018 to 2022.

Future Fleet Development

Our aircraft acquisition program focuses on aircraft that will modernize and rationalize our fleet to better meet the anticipated requirements of our route structure, taking into account aircraft size and fuel efficiency. Our aircraft acquisition program, however, is subject to the approval of the CAAC and the NDRC. Older aircraft models of high energy-consumption will be surrendered as appropriate. Details of the expected fleet plan from 2019 to 2021 are as follows:

As of December 31, 2018, according to confirmed orders, we planned to introduce 23 aircraft and retire 17 aircraft in 2022 and future years.

The actual quantity and time of the introduction and retirement of any of these aircraft or any additional aircraft may depend on such factors as general economic conditions, the levels of prevailing interest rates, foreign exchange rates, the level of inflation, credit conditions in the domestic and international markets, conditions in the aviation industry in China and globally, our financial condition and results of operations, our financing requirements, and the terms of any financing arrangements, such as finance leases, and other capital requirements. We believe that our aircraft acquisition plan will help us accomplish our expansion plans while maintaining an efficient fleet and ensuring alternative sources of supply.

Fleet Financing Arrangements

We generally acquire aircraft through internal funds, long-term capital leases or operating leases. Under the terms of most capital leases, we generally are obligated to make lease payments that finance most of the purchase price of the aircraft over the lease term. Upon the expiration of the lease term, we must either purchase the aircraft at a specified price or pay any amount by which such price exceeds the proceeds from the disposition of the aircraft to third parties. Alternatively, some capital leases provide for ownership of the aircraft to pass to us upon satisfaction of the final lease payment. Under capital leases, aircraft are generally leased for approximately the whole of their estimated working life, and the leases are either non-cancelable or cancelable only on a payment of a major penalty by the lessee. As a result, we bear substantially all of the economic risks and rewards of ownership of the aircraft held under capital leases. Operating leases, however, are customarily cancelable by the lessee on short notice and without major penalty. Leases in which a significant portion of the risks and rewards of ownership are retained by the lessor are classified as operating leases.

Operating Facilities

As of December 31, 2018, we (including subsidiaries and branches) had operations on 643 parcels of land, occupying a total area of approximately 2.3 million square meters. In addition, as of December 31, 2018, we (including subsidiaries and branches) owned approximately 2,101 buildings. We and our major subsidiaries have obtained the land use rights certificates and building ownership certificates for most parcels of land and buildings, and are currently in the process of applying for the certificates with respect to the remaining five parcels of land and 15 buildings. We did not have any environmental issues that may have a material impact on our utilization of the assets in 2018.

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Item 4A. Unresolved Staff Comments

None.

Item 5. Operating and Financial Review and Prospects

You should read the following discussion in conjunction with our audited consolidated financial statements, together with the related notes, included elsewhere in this Annual Report. Our consolidated financial statements have been prepared in accordance with IFRSs. This discussion may include forward-looking statements based upon current expectations that involve risks and uncertainties. Our actual results may differ materially from those anticipated in these forward-looking statements as a result of various factors, including those set forth under “Item 3. Key information - D. Risk Factors” or in other parts of this Annual Report.

Overview

Our primary business is the provision of domestic, regional (which includes Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan) and international passenger services.

Our overall capacity on an available tonne kilometer, or ATK, basis increased by approximately 10.3% from approximately 27,137 million in 2017 to approximately 29,936 million in 2018 under comparable basis and increased by 9.3% from approximately 27,397 million in 2017 to approximately 29,936 million in 2018 under non-comparable basis, and our passenger capacity on an available seat kilometer, or ASK, basis increased by 8.3% from approximately 225,996 million in 2017 to approximately 244,841 million in 2018. Total traffic on a revenue tonne kilometer, or RTK, basis increased by 9.2%, from approximately 18,651 million in 2017 to approximately 20,358 million in 2018 under comparable basis and increased by 8.0% from approximately 18,856 million in 2017 to approximately 20,358 million in 2018 under non-comparable basis.

The historical results of operations discussed in this Annual Report may not be indicative of our future operating performance. Like those of other airlines, our operations depend substantially on overall passenger and cargo traffic volumes and are subject to seasonal and other variations that may influence passenger travel demand and cargo volume and may not be under our control, including unusual political events, changes in the domestic and global economies and other unforeseen events. Our operations will be affected by, among other things, fluctuations in aviation fuel prices, aircraft acquisition and leasing costs, maintenance expenses, take-off and landing charges, wages, salaries and benefits, other operating expenses and the rates of income taxes paid.

Our financial performance is also significantly affected by factors associated with operating in a highly regulated industry, as well as a number of other external variables, including political and economic conditions in China, competition, foreign exchange fluctuations and public perceptions of the safety of air travel with Chinese airlines. Because nearly every aspect of our airline operations is subject to the regulation of the CAAC, our operating revenues and expenses are directly affected by the CAAC regulations with respect to, among other things, domestic airfares, level of commissions paid to sales agents, the aviation fuel price, take-off and landing charges and route allocations. The nature and extent of airline competition and the ability of Chinese airlines to expand are also significantly affected by various CAAC regulations and policies. Changes in the CAAC’s regulatory policies, or in the implementation of such policies, are therefore likely to have a significant impact on our future operations.

Critical Accounting Policies

We prepare our consolidated financial statements in accordance with IFRSs which requires the use of certain critical accounting estimates. It also requires management to exercise its judgment in the process of applying the accounting policies. We have established procedures and processes to facilitate the making of such judgments in the preparation of our consolidated financial statements. Management has used the best information available but actual performance may differ from our management’s estimates and future changes in key variables could change future reported amounts in our consolidated financial statements.

Revenue recognition (applicable from January 1, 2018)

Revenue from contracts with customers

Revenue from contracts with customers is recognized when control of goods or services is transferred to the customers at an amount that reflects the consideration to which the Group expects to be entitled in exchange for those goods or services.

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When the consideration in a contract includes a variable amount, the amount of consideration is estimated to which the Group will be entitled in exchange for transferring the goods or services to the customer. The variable consideration is estimated at contract inception and constrained until it is highly probable that a significant revenue reversal in the amount of cumulative revenue recognized will not occur when the associated uncertainty with the variable consideration is subsequently resolved.

When the contract contains a financing component which provides the customer a significant benefit of financing the transfer of goods or services to the customer for more than one year, revenue is measured at the present value of the amount receivable, discounted using the discount rate that would be reflected in a separate financing transaction between the Group and the customer at contract inception. When the contract contains a financing component which provides the Group a significant financial benefit for more than one year, revenue recognized under the contract includes the interest expense accreted on the contract liability under the effective interest method. For a contract where the period between the payment by the customer and the transfer of the promised goods or services is one year or less, the transaction price is not adjusted for the effects of a significant financing component, using the practical expedient in IFRS 15.

Revenue from the sale of goods is recognized at the point in time when control of the asset is transferred to the customer.

Revenue from other sources

Rental income is recognized on a time proportion basis over the lease terms.

Other income

Interest income is recognized on an accrual basis using the effective interest method by applying the rate that exactly discounts the estimated future cash receipts over the expected life of the financial instrument or a shorter period, when appropriate, to the net carrying amount of the financial asset.

Dividend income is recognized when the shareholders’ right to receive payment has been established, it is probable that the economic benefits associated with the dividend will flow to the Group and the amount of the dividend can be measured reliably.

Contract liabilities (applicable from January 1, 2018)

A contract liability is the obligation to transfer goods or services to a customer for which the Group has received a consideration (or an amount of consideration that is due) from the customer. If a customer pays the consideration before the Group transfers goods or services to the customer, a contract liability is recognized when the payment is made or the payment is due (whichever is earlier). Contract liabilities are recognized as revenue when the Group performs under the contract.

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Revenue recognition (applicable before January 1, 2018)

Revenue comprises the fair value of the consideration received or receivable for the provision of services and the sale of goods in the ordinary course of the Group’s activities. Revenue is stated net of business taxes or value-added taxes, returns, rebates and discounts and after eliminating sales within the Group.

Revenue is recognized when it is probable that the economic benefits will flow to the Group and when the revenue can be measured reliably, on the following basis:

Passenger, cargo and mail revenues are recognized as traffic revenues when the transportation services are provided. The value of sold but unused tickets is recognized as sales in advance of carriage (“SIAC”).

Revenues from the provision of ground services, tour, travel services and other travel related services are recognized when the services are rendered.

Revenues from the provision of cargo handling services are recognized when the services are rendered.

Commission income represents amounts earned from other carriers in respect of sales made by the Group on their behalf, and is recognized in profit or loss upon ticket sales.

Revenues from other operating businesses, including income derived from the provision of freight forwarding, are recognized when the services are rendered.

The Group operates a frequent flyer program that provide travel awards to program members based on accumulated miles. A portion of passenger revenue attributable to the award of frequent flyer benefits is deferred and recognized when the miles have been redeemed or have expired.

Interest income is recognized on a time-proportion basis using the effective interest rate method.

The amount of revenue is not considered to be reliably measurable until all contingencies relating to the sales have been resolved. The Group bases its estimates on historical results, taking into consideration the type of customer, the type of transaction and the specifics of each arrangement.

Intangible assets

Goodwill is initially measured at cost, being the excess of the aggregate of the consideration transferred, the amount recognized for non-controlling interests and any fair value of the Group’s previously held equity interests in the acquiree over the identifiable net assets acquired and liabilities assumed. If the sum of this consideration and other items is lower than the fair value of the net assets acquired, the difference is, after reassessment, recognized in profit or loss as a gain on bargain purchase.

After initial recognition, goodwill is measured at cost less any accumulated impairment losses. Goodwill is tested for impairment annually or more frequently if events or changes in circumstances indicate that the carrying value may be impaired. The Group performs its annual impairment test of goodwill as at December 31. For the purpose of impairment testing, goodwill acquired in a business combination is, from the acquisition date, allocated to each of the Group’s cash-generating units, or groups of cash-generating units, that are expected to benefit from the synergies of the combination, irrespective of whether other assets or liabilities of the Group are assigned to those units or groups of units.

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Impairment is determined by assessing the recoverable amount of the cash-generating unit (group of cash-generating units) to which the goodwill relates. Where the recoverable amount of the cash-generating unit (group of cash-generating units) is less than the carrying amount, an impairment loss is recognized. An impairment loss recognized for goodwill is not reversed in a subsequent period.

Acquired computer software licenses are capitalized on the basis of the costs incurred to acquire and bring to use the specific software. These costs are amortized using the straight-line method over their estimated useful lives of 5 years. Costs associated with developing or maintaining computer software programs are recognized as expenses when incurred.

Others relate to the capitalized costs incurred to acquire the use right of certain flight schedules (i.e. timeslots for flights’ taking off/landing) in Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport Co., Ltd. and Shanghai Pudong International Airport, respectively. These costs are amortized using the straight-line method over their useful lives of 3 years.

Property, plant and equipment

Property, plant and equipment, other than construction in progress, are stated at cost less accumulated depreciation and any impairment losses. When an item of property, plant and equipment is classified as held for sale or when it is part of a disposal group classified as held for sale, it is not depreciated and is accounted for in accordance with IFRS 5, as further explained in the accounting policy for “Non-current assets and disposal groups held for sale”. The cost of an item of property, plant and equipment comprises its purchase price and any directly attributable costs of bringing the asset to its working condition and location for its intended use.

When each major aircraft overhaul is performed, its cost is recognized in the carrying amount of the item of property, plant and equipment and is depreciated over the appropriate maintenance cycles. Components related to airframe overhaul cost, are depreciated on a straight-line basis over 5 to 7.5 years. Components related to engine overhaul costs, are depreciated between each overhaul period using the ratio of actual flying hours and estimated flying hours between overhauls. Upon completion of an overhaul, any remaining carrying amount of the cost of the previous overhaul is derecognized and charged to profit or loss.

Except for components related to overhaul costs, the depreciation method of which has been described in the preceding paragraph, other depreciation of property, plant and equipment is calculated using the straight-line method to write off their costs to their residual values over their estimated useful lives, as follows:

Where parts of an item of property, plant and equipment have different useful lives, the cost of that item is allocated on a reasonable basis among the parts and each part is depreciated separately. Residual values, useful lives and the depreciation method are reviewed, and adjusted if appropriate, at least at each financial year end.

An item of property, plant and equipment including any significant part initially recognized is derecognized upon disposal or when no future economic benefits are expected from its use or disposal. Any gain or loss on disposal or retirement recognized in the statement of profit or loss in the year the asset is derecognized is the difference between the net sales proceeds and the carrying amount of the relevant asset.

Construction in progress represents a building under construction, which is stated at cost less any impairment losses, and is not depreciated. Cost comprises the direct costs of construction and capitalized borrowing costs on related borrowed funds during the period of construction. Construction in progress is reclassified to the appropriate category of property, plant and equipment when completed and ready for use.

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Investments and other financial assets (policies under IFRS 9 applicable from January 1, 2018)

Initial recognition and measurement

Financial assets are classified, at initial recognition, as subsequently measured at amortized cost, fair value through other comprehensive income, and fair value through profit or loss.

The classification of financial assets at initial recognition depends on the financial asset’s contractual cash flow characteristics and the Group’s business model for managing them. With the exception of trade receivables that do not contain a significant financing component or for which the Group has applied the practical expedient of not adjusting the effect of a significant financing component, the Group initially measures a financial asset at its fair value, plus in the case of a financial asset not at fair value through profit or loss, transaction costs. Trade receivables that do not contain a significant financing component or for which the Group has applied the practical expedient are measured at the transaction price determined under IFRS 15 in accordance with the policies set out for “Revenue recognition (applicable from January 1, 2018)” below.

In order for a financial asset to be classified and measured at amortized cost or fair value through other comprehensive income, it needs to give rise to cash flows that are solely payments of principal and interest (“SPPI”) on the principal amount outstanding.

The Group’s business model for managing financial assets refers to how it manages its financial assets in order to generate cash flows. The business model determines whether cash flows will result from collecting contractual cash flows, selling the financial assets, or both.

All regular way purchases and sales of financial assets are recognized on the trade date, that is, the date that the Group commits to purchase or sell the asset. Regular way purchases or sales are purchases or sales of financial assets that require delivery of assets within the period generally established by regulation or convention in the marketplace.

Subsequent measurement

The subsequent measurement of financial assets depends on their classification as follows:

Financial assets at amortized cost (debt instruments)

The Group measures financial assets at amortized cost if both of the following conditions are met:

Financial assets at amortized cost are subsequently measured using the effective interest method and are subject to impairment. Gains and losses are recognized in the statement of profit or loss when the asset is derecognized, modified or impaired.

Financial assets at fair value through other comprehensive income (debt instruments)

The Group measures debt investments at fair value through other comprehensive income if both of the following conditions are met:

For debt investments at fair value through other comprehensive income, interest income, foreign exchange revaluation and impairment losses or reversals are recognized in the statement of profit or loss and computed in the same manner as for financial assets measured at amortized cost. The remaining fair value changes are recognized in other comprehensive income. Upon derecognition, the cumulative fair value change recognized in other comprehensive income is recycled to the statement of profit or loss.

Financial assets designated at fair value through other comprehensive income (equity investments)

Upon initial recognition, the Group can elect to classify irrevocably its equity investments as equity investments designated at fair value through other comprehensive income when they meet the definition of equity under IAS 32 Financial Instruments: Presentation and are not held for trading. The classification is determined on an instrument-by-instrument basis.

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Gains and losses on these financial assets are never recycled to the statement of profit or loss. Dividends are recognized as other income in the statement of profit or loss when the right of payment has been established, it is probable that the economic benefits associated with the dividend will flow to the Group and the amount of the dividend can be measured reliably, except when the Group benefits from such proceeds as a recovery of part of the cost of the financial asset, in which case, such gains are recorded in other comprehensive income. Equity investments designated at fair value through other comprehensive income are not subject to impairment assessment.

Financial assets at fair value through profit or loss

Financial assets at fair value through profit or loss include financial assets held for trading, financial assets designated upon initial recognition at fair value through profit or loss, or financial assets mandatorily required to be measured at fair value. Financial assets are classified as held for trading if they are acquired for the purpose of selling or repurchasing in the near term. Derivatives, including separated embedded derivatives, are also classified as held for trading unless they are designated as effective hedging instruments. Financial assets with cash flows that are not solely payments of principal and interest are classified and measured at fair value through profit or loss, irrespective of the business model. Notwithstanding the criteria for debt instruments to be classified at amortized cost or at fair value through other comprehensive income, as described above, debt instruments may be designated at fair value through profit or loss on initial recognition if doing so eliminates, or significantly reduces, an accounting mismatch.

Financial assets at fair value through profit or loss are carried in the statement of financial position at fair value with net changes in fair value recognized in the statement of profit or loss.

This category includes derivative instruments and equity investments which the Group had not irrevocably elected to classify at fair value through other comprehensive income. Dividends on equity investments classified as financial assets at fair value profit or loss are also recognized as other income in the statement of profit or loss when the right of payment has been established, it is probable that the economic benefits associated with the dividend will flow to the Group and the amount of the dividend can be measured reliably.

A derivative embedded in a hybrid contract, with a financial liability or non-financial host, is separated from the host and accounted for as a separate derivative if the economic characteristics and risks are not closely related to the host; a separate instrument with the same terms as the embedded derivative would meet the definition of a derivative; and the hybrid contract is not measured at fair value through profit or loss. Embedded derivatives are measured at fair value with changes in fair value recognized in the statement of profit or loss. Reassessment only occurs if there is either a change in the terms of the contract that significantly modifies the cash flows that would otherwise be required or a reclassification of a financial asset out of the fair value through profit or loss category.

A derivative embedded within a hybrid contract containing a financial asset host is not accounted for separately. The financial asset host together with the embedded derivative is required to be classified in its entirety as a financial asset at fair value through profit or loss.

Impairment of financial assets (policies under IFRS 9 applicable from January 1, 2018)

The Group recognizes an allowance for ECLs for all debt instruments not held at fair value through profit or loss. ECLs are based on the difference between the contractual cash flows due in accordance with the contract and all the cash flows that the Group expects to receive, discounted at an approximation of the original effective interest rate. The expected cash flows will include cash flows from the sale of collateral held or other credit enhancements that are integral to the contractual terms.

General approach

ECLs are recognized in two stages. For credit exposures for which there has not been a significant increase in credit risk since initial recognition, ECLs are provided for credit losses that result from default events that are possible within the next 12 months (a 12-month ECL). For those credit exposures for which there has been a significant increase in credit risk since initial recognition, a loss allowance is required for credit losses expected over the remaining life of the exposure, irrespective of the timing of the default (a lifetime ECL).

At each reporting date, the Group assesses whether the credit risk on a financial instrument has increased significantly since initial recognition. When making the assessment, the Group compares the risk of a default occurring on the financial instrument as at the reporting date with the risk of a default occurring on the financial instrument as at the date of initial recognition and considers reasonable and supportable information that is available without undue cost or effort, including historical and forward-looking information.

The Group considers a financial asset in default when contractual payments are past due. However, in certain cases, the Group may also consider a financial asset to be in default when internal or external information indicates that the Group is unlikely to receive the outstanding contractual amounts in full before taking into account any credit enhancements held by the Group. A financial asset is written off when there is no reasonable expectation of recovering the contractual cash flows.

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Debt investments at fair value through other comprehensive income and financial assets at amortized cost are subject to impairment under the general approach and they are classified within the following stages for measurement of ECLs except for trade receivables and contract assets which apply the simplified approach as detailed below.

Simplified approach

For trade receivables and contract assets that do not contain a significant financing component or when the Group applies the practical expedient of not adjusting the effect of a significant financing component, the Group applies the simplified approach in calculating ECLs. Under the simplified approach, the Group does not track changes in credit risk, but instead recognizes a loss allowance based on lifetime ECLs at each reporting date. The Group has established a provision matrix that is based on its historical credit loss experience, adjusted for forward-looking factors specific to the debtors and the economic environment.

Derivative financial instruments and hedge accounting (policies under IFRS 9 applicable from January 1, 2018 and IAS 39 applicable before January 1, 2018)

Initial recognition and subsequent measurement

The Group uses derivative financial instruments, such as forward currency contracts and interest rate swaps, to hedge its foreign currency risk and interest rate risk, respectively. Such derivative financial instruments are initially recognized at fair value on the date on which a derivative contract is entered into and are subsequently remeasured at fair value. Derivatives are carried as assets when the fair value is positive and as liabilities when the fair value is negative.

Any gains or losses arising from changes in fair value of derivatives are taken directly to the statement of profit or loss, except for the effective portion of cash flow hedges, which is recognized in other comprehensive income and later reclassified to profit or loss when the hedged item affects profit or loss.

For the purpose of hedge accounting, hedges are classified as:

At the inception of a hedge relationship, the Group formally designates and documents the hedge relationship to which the Group wishes to apply hedge accounting, the risk management objective and its strategy for undertaking the hedge.

Before January 1, 2018, the documentation included identification of the hedging instrument, the hedged item or transaction, the nature of the risk being hedged and how the Group assessed the hedging instrument’s effectiveness of changes in the hedging instrument’s fair value in offsetting the exposure to changes in the hedged item’s fair value or cash flows attributable to the hedged risk. Such hedges were expected to be highly effective in achieving offsetting changes in fair value or cash flows and were assessed on an ongoing basis to determine that they actually have been highly effective throughout the financial reporting periods for which they were designated.

Starting from January 1, 2018, the documentation includes identification of the hedging instrument, the hedged item, the nature of the risk being hedged and how the Group will assess whether the hedging relationship meets the hedge effectiveness requirements (including the analysis of sources of hedge ineffectiveness and how the hedge ratio is determined). A hedging relationship qualifies for hedge accounting if it meets all of the following effectiveness requirements:

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Hedges which meet all the qualifying criteria for hedge accounting are accounted for as follows:

Cash flow hedges

The effective portion of the gain or loss on the hedging instrument is recognized directly in other comprehensive income in the cash flow hedge reserve, while any ineffective portion is recognized immediately in the statement of profit or loss. The cash flow hedge reserve is adjusted to the lower of the cumulative gain or loss on the hedging instrument and the cumulative change in fair value of the hedged item.

The amounts accumulated in other comprehensive income are accounted for, depending on the nature of the underlying hedged transaction. If the hedged transaction subsequently results in the recognition of a non-financial item, the amount accumulated in equity is removed from the separate component of equity and included in the initial cost or other carrying amount of the hedged asset or liability. This is not a reclassification adjustment and will not be recognized in other comprehensive income for the period. This also applies where the hedged forecast transaction of a non-financial asset or non-financial liability subsequently becomes a firm commitment to which fair value hedge accounting is applied.

For any other cash flow hedges, the amount accumulated in other comprehensive income is reclassified to the statement of profit or loss as a reclassification adjustment in the same period or periods during which the hedged cash flows affect the statement of profit or loss.

If cash flow hedge accounting is discontinued, the amount that has been accumulated in other comprehensive income must remain in accumulated other comprehensive income if the hedged future cash flows are still expected to occur. Otherwise, the amount will be immediately reclassified to the statement of profit or loss as a reclassification adjustment. After the discontinuation, once the hedged cash flow occurs, any amount remaining in accumulated other comprehensive income is accounted for depending on the nature of the underlying transaction as described above.

Current versus non-current classification

Derivative instruments that are not designated as effective hedging instruments are classified as current or non-current or separated into current and non-current portions based on an assessment of the facts and circumstances (i.e., the underlying contracted cash flows).

Derivative instruments that are designated as, and are effective hedging instruments, are classified consistently with the classification of the underlying hedged item. The derivative instruments are separated into current portions and non-current portions only if a reliable allocation can be made.

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Leases

Finance leases

Leases where the Group has acquired substantially all the risks and rewards of ownership are classified as finance leases. Finance leases are capitalized at the lease’s commencement at the lower of the fair value of the assets and the present value of the minimum lease payments.

Each lease payment is allocated between the liability and finance charges. The corresponding rental obligations, net of finance charges, are included in the current portion of obligation under finance leases and obligations under finance leases, respectively. The interest element of the finance costs is charged to profit or loss over the lease period so as to produce a constant periodic rate of interest on the remaining balance of the liability for each period. Leased assets are depreciated using a straight-line basis over their expected useful lives to residual values.

For sale and leaseback transactions resulting in a finance lease, the Group continues to recognize the transferred asset and recognize a financial liability equal to the transfer proceeds.

Operating leases

Leases in which a significant portion of the risks and rewards of ownership are retained by the lessor are classified as operating leases. Payments made under operating leases (net of any incentives received from the lessor) are charged to profit or loss on a straight-line basis over the period of the lease.

For sale and leaseback transactions resulting in an operating lease, differences between sales proceeds and net book values are recognized immediately in profit or loss, except to the extent that any profit or loss is compensated for by future lease payments at above or below the market value, then the profit or loss is deferred and amortized over the period for which the asset is expected to be used.

Assets leased out under operating leases are included in property, plant and equipment in the statement of financial position. They are depreciated over their expected useful lives on a basis consistent with similar property, plant and equipment. Rental income is recognized on a straight-line basis over the lease term.

Retirement benefits

The Group participates in schemes regarding pension and medical benefits for employees organized by the municipal governments of the relevant provinces. Contributions to these schemes are expensed as incurred.

The Group also implemented an additional defined contribution pension benefit scheme (annuity) for voluntary eligible employees. Contributions are made based on a percentage of the employees’ total salaries and are charged to profit or loss as incurred.

The Group provides eligible retirees with certain post-retirement benefits including retirement subsidies, transportation allowance as well as other welfare. The defined post-retirement benefits are unfunded. The cost of providing benefits under the post-retirement benefit plan is determined using the projected unit credit actuarial valuation method.

Remeasurements arising from the post-retirement benefit plan, comprising actuarial gains and losses, the effect of the asset ceiling (excluding net interest) and the return on plan assets (excluding net interest), are recognized immediately in the consolidated statement of financial position with a corresponding debit or credit to equity through other comprehensive income in the period in which they occur. Remeasurements are not reclassified to profit or loss in subsequent periods.

Past service costs are recognized in profit or loss at the earlier of:

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Net interest is calculated by applying the discount rate to the net defined benefit liability or asset. The Group recognizes the following changes in the net defined benefit obligation under “Wages, salaries and benefits” and “Finance costs” in profit or loss:

Income tax

Income tax comprises current and deferred tax. Income tax relating to items recognized outside profit or loss is recognized outside profit or loss, either in other comprehensive income or directly in equity.

Current tax assets and liabilities are measured at the amount expected to be recovered from or paid to the taxation authorities, based on tax rates (and tax laws) that have been enacted or substantively enacted by the end of the reporting period, taking into consideration interpretations and practices prevailing in the countries in which the Group operates.

Deferred tax is provided, using the liability method, on all temporary differences at the end of the reporting period between the tax bases of assets and liabilities and their carrying amounts for financial reporting purposes.

Deferred tax liabilities are recognized for all taxable temporary differences, except:

Deferred tax assets are recognized for all deductible temporary differences, the carryforward of unused tax credits and any unused tax losses. Deferred tax assets are recognized to the extent that it is probable that taxable profit will be available against which the deductible temporary differences, the carryforward of unused tax credits and unused tax losses can be utilized, except:

The carrying amount of deferred tax assets is reviewed at the end of each reporting period and reduced to the extent that it is no longer probable that sufficient taxable profit will be available to allow all or part of the deferred tax asset to be utilized. Unrecognized deferred tax assets are reassessed at the end of each reporting period and are recognized to the extent that it has become probable that sufficient taxable profit will be available to allow all or part of the deferred tax asset to be recovered.

Deferred tax assets and liabilities are measured at the tax rates that are expected to apply to the period when the asset is realized or the liability is settled, based on tax rates (and tax laws) that have been enacted or substantively enacted by the end of the reporting period.

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Deferred tax assets and deferred tax liabilities are offset if and only if the Group has a legally enforceable right to set off current tax assets and current tax liabilities and the deferred tax assets and deferred tax liabilities relate to income taxes levied by the same taxation authority on either the same taxable entity or different taxable entities which intend either to settle current tax liabilities and assets on a net basis, or to realize the assets and settle the liabilities simultaneously, in each future period in which significant amounts of deferred tax liabilities or assets are expected to be settled or recovered.

Critical Accounting Estimates and Judgments

Estimates and judgments used in preparing the financial statements are continually evaluated and are based on historical experience and other factors, including expectations of future events that are believed to be reasonable under the circumstances. The Group makes estimates and assumptions concerning the future. The resulting accounting estimates will, by definition, seldom equal the related actual results. The estimates and assumptions that have a significant risk of causing a material adjustment to the carrying amounts of assets and liabilities within the next financial year are discussed below.

Passenger ticket breakage

The Group recognizes traffic revenues in accordance with the accounting policy stated in note 2.4 to the financial statements. Passenger ticket breakage is recognized as revenue based on estimates. The Group estimates the value of passenger ticket breakage, reduces contract liabilities and recognizes revenue at the scheduled flight date using a portfolio based approach. The breakage rate is estimated and constrained by reference to the historical trend of passenger ticket breakage.

Frequent flyer program (“FFP”)

Passenger ticket sales earning mileage credits under the Company’s FFP provide customers with mileage credits earned and air transportation. The portion of sales attributable to the award of frequent flyer benefits is allocated applying a relative standalone selling price approach. The Group estimates the standalone fair value of the mileage credits by reference to the quantitative value a passenger receives by redeeming miles for a ticket rather than paying cash, which is referred to as equivalent ticket value (“ETV”). The estimate of ETV is adjusted for mileage credits that are not likely to be redeemed (“mileage credits breakage”). Management uses models to estimate breakage based on historical redemption patterns and unredeemed information. A change in assumptions as to the actual redemption activity for mileage credits or the estimated fair value of mileage credits expected to be redeemed could have a material impact on the revenue in the year in which the change occurs and in future years.

Mileage credits breakage is recognized as revenue proportionally during the year in which the remaining mileage credits are actually redeemed.

Provision for return condition checks for aircraft and engines under operating leases

Provision for the estimated costs of return condition checks for aircraft and engines under operating leases is made based on the estimated costs for such return condition checks and taking into account anticipated flying hours, flying cycle and time frame between each overhaul. These judgments or estimates are based on historical experience on returning similar airframe models, actual costs incurred and aircraft status. Different judgments or estimates could significantly affect the estimated provision for costs of return condition checks.

Retirement benefits

The Group operates and maintains a defined retirement benefit plan which provides eligible retirees with benefits including retirement subsidies, transportation allowance as well as other welfare. The cost of providing the aforementioned benefits in the defined retirement benefit plan is actuarially determined and recognized over the employee’s service period by utilizing various actuarial assumptions and using the projected unit credit method in accordance with the accounting policy stated in note 2.4 to the financial statements. These assumptions include, without limitation, the selection of discount rate, annual rate of increase of per capita benefit payment and etc. The discount rate is based on management’s review of government bonds. The annual rate of increase of benefit payments is based on the general local economic conditions.

Additional information regarding the retirement benefit plan is disclosed in note 41 to the financial statements.

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Deferred income tax

In assessing the amount of deferred tax assets that need to be recognized in accordance with the accounting policy stated in note 2.4 to the financial statements, the Group considers future taxable income and ongoing prudent and feasible tax planning strategies. In the event that the Group’s estimates of projected future taxable income and benefits from available tax strategies are changed, or changes in current tax regulations are enacted that would impact the timing or extent of the Group’s ability to utilize the tax benefits of deductible tax losses carried forward in the future, adjustments to the recorded amount of net deferred tax assets and taxation expense would be made.

Provision for flight equipment spare parts

Provision for flight equipment spare parts is made based on the difference between the carrying amount and the net realizable value. The net realizable value is estimated based on current market condition, historical experience and the Company’s future operation plan for the aircraft and related spare parts. The net realizable value may be adjusted significantly due to the change of market condition and the future plan for the aircraft and related spare parts.

Depreciation of property, plant and equipment

Depreciation of components related to airframe and engine overhaul costs is based on the Group’s historical experience with similar airframe and engine models and taking into account anticipated overhaul costs, timeframe between each overhaul, ratio of actual flying hours and estimated flying hours between overhauls. Different judgments or estimates could significantly affect the estimated depreciation charge and the results of operations.

Except for components related to engine overhaul costs, other property, plant and equipment are depreciated on a straight-line basis over the estimated useful lives, after taking into account the estimated residual value. The useful lives are based on the Group’s historical experience with similar assets and taking into account anticipated technological changes. The Group reviews the estimated useful lives of assets regularly in order to determine the amount of depreciation expense to be recorded during any reporting period. The depreciation expense for future periods is adjusted if there are significant changes from previous estimates.

Estimated impairment of property, plant and equipment and intangible assets

The Group tests whether property, plant and equipment and intangible assets have been impaired in accordance with the accounting policy stated in note 3 to the financial statements. The recoverable amount of the cash-generating unit has been determined based on fair value less cost to sell and value-in-use calculations. Value-in-use calculations use cash flow projections based on financial budgets approved by management and certain key assumptions, such as passenger-kilometers yield level, load factor, aircraft utilization rate and discount rates.

Impairment of goodwill

The Group determines whether goodwill is impaired at least on an annual basis. This requires an estimation of the value in use of the cash-generating unit to which the goodwill is allocated. Estimating the value in use requires the Group to make an estimate of the expected future cash flows from the cash-generating unit and also to choose a suitable discount rate in order to calculate the present value of those cash flows.

Fair value of unlisted equity investments

The unlisted equity investments have been valued based on a market-based valuation technique as detailed in note 51 to the financial statements. The valuation requires the Group to determine the comparable companies (peers) and select the price multiple. In addition, the Group makes estimates about the discount for illiquidity and size differences. The Group classifies the fair value hierarchy of these investments as Level 3.

Operating Segments

In accordance with IFRS 8, segment disclosure has been presented in a manner that is consistent with the information used by our chief operating decision-maker (“CODM”). Our CODM monitors the results, assets and liabilities attributable to each reportable segment based on financial results prepared under the PRC Accounting Standards for Business Enterprises (the “PRC Accounting Standards”), which differ from IFRSs in certain aspects. The amount of each material reconciling items from the Group’s reportable segment revenue and profit before income tax, arising from different accounting policies are set out in note 4(c) below.

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A. Operating Result

The following tables set forth our summary consolidated statements of profit or loss and other comprehensive income and financial position data as of and for the years indicated:

Notes:

2018 Compared to 2017

Our revenues increased by approximately 12.5% from approximately RMB102,475 million in 2017 to approximately RMB115,278 million in 2018.

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In 2018, we transported approximately 121 million passengers, representing an increase of approximately 9.0%, from approximately 111 million passengers in 2017. Our total passenger traffic (as measured in RPKs) increased by approximately 10.0%, from approximately 183,182 million in 2017 to approximately 201,486 million in 2018.

Our total cargo and mail traffic (as measured in RFTKs) increased by approximately 5.3% from approximately 2,458 million in 2017 to approximately 2,588 million in 2018 under comparable basis and decreased by approximately 2.8% from approximately 2,663 million in 2017 to approximately 2,588 million in 2018 under non-comparable basis.

Our average yield for our passenger operations remained relatively stable at RMB0.52 per passenger-kilometers in 2017 and RMB0.54 per passenger-kilometers in 2018.

Our average yield for our cargo and mail operations remained relatively stable at RMB1.36 per freight tonne-kilometers in 2017 and RMB1.40 per freight tonne-kilometers in 2018 under both comparable and non-comparable basis.

The following chart sets forth our revenue breakdown for 2017 and 2018:

Notes:

Passenger revenues

Our passenger traffic revenues increased by approximately RMB12,745 million, or approximately 13.9%, from approximately RMB91,564 million in 2017 to approximately RMB104,309 million in 2018. This increase was primarily due to increased passenger demand and increase in scheduled flights, as well as robust demand for outbound tourism.

Our domestic passenger traffic revenues (excluding Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan passenger revenues) amounted to approximately RMB68,619 million in 2018, which accounted for approximately 65.8% of our total passenger traffic revenues in 2018, increased by approximately 14.0% from approximately RMB60,180 million in 2017, primarily due to increased passenger demand. Our domestic passenger traffic (as measured in RPKs) increased by approximately 10.2% from approximately 117,033 million in 2017 to approximately 128,906 million in 2018. The number of passengers carried on domestic routes increased by approximately 8.6% from approximately 93 million in 2017 to approximately 101 million in 2018. Our passenger-kilometers yield for domestic routes remained relatively stable at RMB0.54 per passenger-kilometer in 2017 and RMB0.56 per passenger-kilometer in 2018.

Our regional passenger traffic revenues (representing Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan passenger revenues) amounted to approximately RMB3,821 million in 2018, which accounted for approximately 3.7% of our total passenger traffic revenues in 2018, increased by approximately 11.7% from approximately RMB3,420 million in 2017, primarily due to the increase of passenger volume. Our regional passenger traffic (as measured in RPKs) increased by approximately 11.2% from approximately 4,758 million in 2017 to approximately 5,289 million in 2018. The number of passengers carried on Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan routes increased by approximately 11.4% from approximately 3.5 million in 2017 to approximately 3.9 million in 2018. Our passenger-kilometers yield for regional routes remained relatively stable at RMB0.72 per passenger-kilometer in 2017 and RMB0.73 per passenger-kilometer in 2018.

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Our international passenger traffic revenues amounted to approximately RMB31,869 million in 2018, which accounted for approximately 30.6% of our total passenger traffic revenues in 2018, increased by approximately 14.0% from approximately RMB27,964 million in 2017, primarily due to increased international passenger demand and increase in our scheduled flights on international routes. Our international passenger traffic (as measured in RPKs) increased by approximately 9.6% from approximately 61,391 million in 2017 to approximately 67,290 million in 2018. The number of passengers carried on international routes increased by approximately 9.5% from approximately 14.7 million in 2017 to approximately 16.1 million in 2018. Our passenger-kilometers yield for international routes remained relatively stable at RMB0.47 per passenger-kilometer in 2017 and RMB0.49 per passenger-kilometer in 2018.

Cargo and mail revenues

Our cargo and mail traffic revenues accounted for approximately 3.4% of our total traffic revenues in 2018 and remained relatively stable at approximately RMB3,623 million in 2017 and approximately RMB3,627 million in 2018. Cargo and mail yield remained relatively stable at approximately RMB1.36 per freight tonne-kilometers in 2017 and approximately RMB1.40 per freight tonne-kilometers in 2018.

Our domestic cargo and mail traffic revenues (excluding Hong Kong, Taiwan and Macau cargo and mail revenues) accounted for approximately 27.3% of our total cargo and mail traffic revenues in 2018 and remained relatively stable at approximately RMB985 million in 2017 and approximately RMB989 million in 2018. Our freight tonne-kilometers yield for domestic routes remained relatively stable at RMB1.10 per freight tonne-kilometers in 2017 and RMB1.12 per freight tonne-kilometers in 2018.

Our regional cargo and mail traffic revenues (representing Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan cargo and mail traffic revenues) amounted to approximately RMB196 million in 2018, which accounted for approximately 5.4% of our total cargo and mail traffic revenues in 2018, increased by approximately 23.3% from approximately RMB159 million in 2017, mainly due to the increased cargo transportation demand and increase in scheduled flights. Our freight tonne-kilometers yield for regional routes increased by 56.7% from RMB3.56 per freight tonne-kilometers in 2017 to RMB5.57 per freight tonne-kilometers in 2018 under non-comparable basis and increased by 53.9% from RMB3.62 per freight tonne-kilometers in 2017 to RMB5.57 per freight tonne-kilometers in 2018 under comparable basis.

International cargo and mail traffic revenues accounted for approximately 67.3% of our total cargo and mail traffic revenues in 2018 and remained relatively stable at approximately RMB2,478 million in 2017 and approximately RMB2,442 million in 2018. Our freight tonne-kilometers yield for international routes was RMB1.44 per freight tonne-kilometers under non-comparable basis in 2017, RMB1.46 per freight tonne-kilometers under comparable basis in 2017 and RMB1.47 per freight tonne-kilometers in 2018, remaining relatively stable in 2017 and 2018.

Other revenues

We also generated revenues from other services, including tour operations, airport ground services, cargo handling and processing services and ticket handling services. These services include loading and unloading of cargo, aircraft cleaning and ground transportation of cargo and passenger luggage for aircraft arriving at or departing from Hongqiao International Airport and Pudong International Airport of Shanghai. We are currently the principal provider of airport ground services at both Hongqiao International Airport and Pudong International Airport. Our total other revenues remained relatively stable at approximately RMB7,288 million in 2017 and approximately RMB7,341 million in 2018.

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Operating Expenses

The following chart sets forth a breakdown of our operating expenses for the years ended December 31, 2017 and 2018:

Our total operating expenses increased by approximately 12.0% from approximately RMB100,525 million in 2017 to approximately RMB112,561 million in 2018. Under the influence of further expansion of our operational scale and the rapid growth in the passenger traffic volume and the number of passengers carried, our various costs such as aircraft take-off and landing costs, catering, depreciation and amortization increased from 2017. Our total operating expenses accounted for approximately 97.6% of our operating revenue in 2018, representing a decrease from approximately 98.1% in 2017.

Aircraft fuel expenses increased by approximately 34.0% from approximately RMB25,131 million in 2017 to approximately RMB33,680 million in 2018. The increase was primarily due to an increase of 24.9% in the average price of fuel, leading to an increase in the aircraft fuel costs by RMB6,720 million, and to a lesser extent, the increase in our volume of refueling of 7.3% from 2017, leading to an increase in aircraft fuel costs by RMB1,829 million.

Take-off and landing charges increased by 12.5% from approximately RMB13,254 million in 2017 to approximately RMB14,914 million in 2018, primarily due to the increase in the number of our aircraft take-offs and landings and the adjustment of pricing standards of China’s airports since April 2017 in accordance with the “Circular on Printing and Distributing Plan for Adjusting Charge Standards of Civil Airports” (CAAC 2017 Notice No.18). In 2018, the increased frequency of our various international long-haul routes such as routes to Europe, the United States and Australia, combining the effect of adjustment of pricing standards, resulted in an increase in international as well as domestic take-off and landing charges.

Depreciation and amortization increased by approximately 9.6% from approximately RMB13,969 million in 2017 to approximately RMB15,313 million in 2018, primarily due to the increase in aircraft and engines (self-owned and under finance leases) added to our fleet in 2018, leading to an increase in the original value of fixed assets and a corresponding increase in depreciation.

Wages, salaries and benefits, which accounted for approximately 19.7% of our total operating expenses in 2018, increased by approximately 8.9% from approximately RMB20,320 million in 2017 to approximately RMB22,134 million in 2018, primarily due to the combined effect of the increase in the number of aircrew, the increase in flight hours and the rise in the standard flight hour fees.

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Aircraft maintenance expenses, which accounted for approximately 3.3% of our total operating expenses in 2018, decreased by approximately 30.1% from approximately RMB5,346 million in 2017 to approximately RMB3,738 million in 2018, primarily due to the decrease in the number of engines sent for maintenance in 2018.

Food and beverage expenses increased by approximately 9.5% from approximately RMB3,090 million in 2017 to approximately RMB3,383 million in 2018, primarily due to the increase in the number of passengers carried and the rise in standards required for the provision of catering.

Other operating lease rentals increased by approximately 11.0% from approximately RMB836 million in 2017 to approximately RMB928 million in 2018, primarily due to an increase in the rentals for office premises and VIP rooms.

Selling and marketing expenses increased by approximately 15.6% from approximately RMB3,294 million in 2017 to approximately RMB3,807 million in 2018, in line with our increased sales.

The amount of civil aviation development fund to the CAAC increased by approximately 7.5% from approximately RMB2,080 million in 2017 to approximately RMB2,235 million in 2018, primarily due to the increase in the flying length in 2018.

Ground services and other expenses decreased by approximately 12.4% from approximately RMB3,248 million in 2017 to approximately RMB2,845 million in 2018, primarily due to the decrease in the cost of subsidiaries for ancillary businesses.

Indirect operating expenses increased by approximately 7.9% from approximately RMB4,837 million in 2017 to approximately RMB5,217 million in 2018, primarily due to the expansion of our fleet scale, which led to a corresponding increase in relevant expenses.

Fair Value Changes of Derivative Financial Instruments

Changes in fair value of derivative financial instruments was recorded a gain of approximately RMB311 million in 2018, as compared to a loss of approximately RMB311 million in 2017. The difference was mainly due to the fair value movement of forward foreign exchange contracts in 2018.

Other Operating Income and Gains

Our other operating income and gains mainly consists of co-operation routes income, the rest being income from disposal of property, plant and equipment and subsidy income. The total amount of our other operating income and gains decreased by approximately 11.9% from approximately RMB7,481 million in 2017 to approximately RMB6,592 million in 2018, primarily because that we recorded the income from the disposal of interest in Eastern Logistics in 2017 while we did not record such income in 2018.

Net Finance Costs

In 2018, our finance income was approximately RMB110 million, representing an decrease of approximately RMB2,002 million from approximately RMB2,112 million in 2017, primarily because we recorded net exchange gains arising from the appreciation of RMB of approximately RMB2,001 million in 2017 while we recorded net exchange losses in 2018. Finance costs amounted to approximately RMB5,767 million in 2018, representing an increase of approximately RMB2,583 million from approximately RMB3,184 million in 2017, primarily due to net exchange losses arising from the depreciation of RMB of approximately RMB2,040 million during the year.

Profit Attributable to the Equity Holders of the Company

As a result of the foregoing, the net profit attributable to the equity holders of the Company decreased by approximately 57.5% from approximately RMB6,342 million in 2017 to approximately RMB2,698 million in 2018. The decrease was mainly due to the increase in finance costs, the increase in fuel costs and the one-off gain from disposal of a subsidiary in 2017.

Property, Plant and Equipment

We had approximately RMB180,104 million of property, plant and equipment as of December 31, 2018, including, among other assets, aircraft, engines and flight equipment, representing an increase of 7.9% from approximately RMB166,856 million in 2017. The increase was mainly due to an increase in the number of aircraft.

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2017 Compared to 2016

Revenues

Our revenues increased by approximately 3.6%, from approximately RMB98,904 million in 2016 to approximately RMB102,475 million in 2017. Revenues increased in our passenger business operations, primarily due to increased passenger demand and increase in scheduled flights, which was partially offset by decreased revenue in our cargo and mail business operations, primarily due to disposal of Eastern Logistics in 2017.

In 2017, we transported approximately 111 million passengers, representing an increase of approximately 8.9%, from approximately 102 million passengers in 2016. Our total passenger traffic (as measured in RPKs) increased by approximately 9.3%, from approximately 167,529 million in 2016 to approximately 183,182 million in 2017.

Our total cargo and mail traffic (as measured in RFTKs) increased by approximately 6.7%, from approximately 2,495 million in 2016 to approximately 2,663 million in 2017 under comparable basis and decreased by approximately 45.4% from approximately 4,875 million in 2016 to approximately 2,663 million in 2017 under non-comparable basis.

Our average yield for our passenger operations remained relatively stable at RMB0.517 in 2016 and RMB0.521 per in 2017.

Our average yield for our cargo and mail operations increased by approximately 8.8% from approximately RMB1.25 in 2016 to approximately RMB1.36 in 2017.

The following chart sets forth our revenue breakdown for 2016 and 2017:

Passenger revenues

Our passenger traffic revenues increased by approximately RMB7,987 million, or approximately 9.6%, from approximately RMB83,577 million in 2016 to approximately RMB91,564 million in 2017. This increase was primarily due to increased passenger demand and increase in scheduled flights, as well as robust demand for outbound tourism.

Our domestic passenger traffic revenues (excluding Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan passenger revenues), which accounted for approximately 65.7% of our total passenger traffic revenues in 2017, increased by approximately 11.2% from approximately RMB54,137 million in 2016 to approximately RMB60,180 million in 2017, primarily due to increased passenger demand. Compared to 2017, our domestic passenger traffic (as measured in RPKs) increased by approximately 10.0% from approximately 106,361 million in 2016 to approximately 117,033 million in 2017. The number of passengers carried on domestic routes increased by approximately 10.0% from approximately 84 million in 2016 to approximately 93 million in 2017. Our passenger-kilometers yield for domestic routes remained relatively stable at RMB0.53 per passenger-kilometer in 2016 and RMB0.54 in 2017.

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Our regional passenger traffic revenues (representing Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan passenger revenues) which accounted for approximately 3.7% of our total passenger traffic revenues in 2017, increased by approximately 11.1% from approximately RMB3,078 million in 2016 to approximately RMB3,420 million in 2017, primarily due to the increase of passenger volume. Our regional passenger traffic (as measured in RPKs) increased by approximately 9.5% in 2017 from approximately 4,347 million in 2016 to approximately 4,758 million in 2017. The number of passengers carried on Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan routes increased by approximately 9.3% from approximately 3.2 million in 2016 to approximately 3.5 million in 2017. Our passenger-kilometers yield for regional routes remained relatively stable at RMB0.71 in 2016 and RMB0.72 in 2017.

International passenger traffic revenues, which accounted for approximately 30.6% of our total passenger traffic revenues in 2017, increased by approximately 6.1% from approximately RMB26,362 million in 2016 to approximately RMB27,964 million in 2017. The increase was primarily due to increased international passenger demand and increase in our scheduled flights on international routes. Our international passenger traffic (as measured in RPKs) increased by approximately 8.0% in 2017 from approximately 56,821 million in 2016 to approximately 61,391 million in 2017. The number of passengers carried on international routes increased by approximately 2.5% from approximately 14.3 million in 2016 to approximately 14.7 million in 2017. Our passenger-kilometers yield for international routes remained relatively stable at RMB0.471 in 2016 and RMB0.470 in 2017.

Cargo and mail revenues

Our cargo and mail traffic revenues decreased by approximately 39.4%, from approximately RMB5,977 million in 2016 to approximately RMB3,623 million in 2017, which accounted for approximately 3.8% of our total traffic revenues in 2017. Cargo and mail yield increased by approximately 8.8% from approximately RMB1.25 in 2016 to approximately RMB1.36 in 2017.

Our domestic cargo and mail traffic revenues (excluding Hong Kong, Taiwan and Macau cargo and mail revenues), which accounted for approximately 27.2% of our total cargo and mail traffic revenues in 2017, decreased from approximately RMB1,026 million in 2016 to approximately RMB985 million in 2017. This decrease was primarily due to the disposal of our interest in Eastern Logistics. Our freight tonne-kilometers yield for domestic routes remained relatively stable at RMB1.07 in 2016 and RMB1.10 in 2017 under non-comparable basis. Our freight tonne-kilometers yield for domestic routes remained stable at RMB1.10 in 2016 and RMB1.10 in 2017 under comparable basis.

Our regional cargo and mail traffic revenues (representing Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan cargo and mail traffic revenues), which accounted for approximately 4.4% of our total cargo and mail traffic revenues in 2017, decreased by approximately 57.5%, from approximately RMB374 million in 2016 to approximately RMB159 million in 2017, mainly due to the disposal of our interest in Eastern Logistics. Our freight tonne-kilometers yield for regional routes increased from RMB2.98 in 2016 to RMB3.56 in 2017 under non-comparable basis. Our freight tonne-kilometers yield for regional routes increased from RMB3.04 in 2016 to RMB3.56 in 2017 under comparable basis.

International cargo and mail traffic revenues, which accounted for approximately 68.4% of our total cargo and mail traffic revenues in 2017, decreased by approximately 45.8%, from approximately RMB4,576 million in 2016 to approximately RMB2,478 million in 2017, mainly due to the disposal of our interest in Eastern Logistics. Our freight tonne-kilometers yield for international routes increased from RMB1.24 in 2016 to RMB1.44 in 2017 under non-comparable basis. Our freight tonne-kilometers yield for international routes increased from RMB1.30 in 2016 to RMB1.44 in 2017 under comparable basis.

Other revenues

We also generated revenues from other services, including tour operations, airport ground services, cargo handling and processing services and ticket handling services. These services include loading and unloading of cargo, aircraft cleaning and ground transportation of cargo and passenger luggage for aircraft arriving at or departing from Hongqiao International Airport and Pudong International Airport of Shanghai. We are currently the principal provider of airport ground services at both Hongqiao International Airport and Pudong International Airport. Our total other revenues decreased by approximately 22.1% from approximately RMB9,350 million in 2016 to approximately RMB7,288 million in 2017, primarily due to disposal of Eastern Logistics, which also handles certain airport ground services, cargo handling and processing services.

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Operating Expenses

The following chart sets forth a breakdown of our operating expenses for the years ended December 31, 2016 and 2017: